u 



A WAR-MODIFIED 




PUBLIC 
OF COLORADO 



ISSUED BY ji 

THE DEPARTMEi^T OF PUBLIC INBTRuOTIQJN j 
MARY C. C. BRADFORD, Superintendent |j 

1918 \] 

VOLUME in !| 

THE WORLD OF NATURE AND OF MAM' I 



1 '- ^ I 



"JVo child should have less opportunity foi 
education because of the war" 

— Woodrow Wiisui^ 






P^PARED BY 
MARY G. C. BRADFORD 

AND CO-d^ERATING EDUCATORS 

1918 
DENVER 

lAMIS aKCJa., BTftTB ^!eiNI"i:S3 



A WAR-MODIFIED 

COURSE OF STUDY 

FOR "X ^ 7 

THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
OF COLORADO 



Cy6rvOXA-« ISSUED by 

THE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 
MARY C. C. BRADFORD, Superintendent 
1918 



VOLUME III 
THE WORLD OF NATURE AND OF MAN 




"J\lo child should have less opportunity for 
education because of the war" 

— Woodrow Wilson 



PREPARED BY 

MARY C. C. BRADFORD 

AND CO-OPERATING EDUCATORS 

1918 
DENVER 

EAMES BROS., STATE PRINTERS 






NOTICE 



Teachers of Colorado. 



TMs volume is public property and is not to be removed from 
the district when you leave; 

The State of Colorado provides these books, paying for them 
from the State School Fund. They are ordered by your County 
Superintendent for use by any teacher who may be in charge of 
the school where you are now teaching. 

War service demands conservation of books and all other 
school material. Therefore, as a matter of honor and an obliga- 
tion of patriotism, please regard this book as public property, not 
for personal ownership. 

state Superintendent of Puhlic Instruction. 

fi; •t B. 

AUQ 28 1920 



FOREWORD 

This volume of the War-Modified Course of Study contains 
those subjects that are essentially interpretive of matters in rela- 
tion to nature and society. 

The co-operating educators are: T. Gilbert Pearson of the 
National Association of Audubon Societies, also G. A. Barker, H, 
S. Phillips, Mary K. Sherman, Alvin Kezer, P. L. Clarke; Inga 
M. K. Allison, G. A. Eaeth and Ivan Sample of Colorado. To them 
I offer the thanks of the teachers and school children of Colorado, 
and I urge that the teaching force give most sympathetic response 
to the outlines and suggestions offered by these expert school 
people. 

The contributing architects are: Mountjoy, French and 
Frew en. 



State Superintendent of PuMic Instruction. 



INDEX 

PAGE 

Geography ..--- 5 

Nature Study and Science - — - - 12 

Agriculture - 59 

School Gardens 65 

Home Economics -.. 102 

Manual Training and Vocational Education .- 129 

Good E-oacls ---'. 159 

School Architecture 163 

The Junior Red Cross as a Permanent Educative Agency 179 



GEOGRAPHY 



FIRST GRADE 



Sand Table Work. — Europe Avorkecl up by teacher. Mountain 
ranges in relief. Oceans or other large bodies of water, — pieces of 
glass or mica. The location of the French and other fronts. 

Stories of life among the children of France, Italy, Belgium 
and Russia read to children. 

Correlation of Nature Study Work. — Plants and trees of 
European origin that grow with us and along French roadsides and 
in the lanes of Italy: Lombardy poplar, silver leaf poplar, white 
birch, apple, pear, plum and cherry. 

Colorado crops that grow in France : wheat, rye, oats, barley, 
corn, potatoes, turnips, radishes, beets, lettuce, spinach, carrots, 
parsnips and onions. 

Animals we have in Colorado that we would see in France : 
horses, cows, sheep, goats, chickens, turkeys, geese, ducks, guinea 
fowls and English sparrows. 

SECOND GRADE 

The making of a map of your own locality, first of schoolroom, 
then of school yard, finally of town or of several miles adjacent to 
school, with roads and farms as well as farm buildings marked out. 
Bring up with the children the difference between an American 
countryside with thinly scattered countryside buildings being 
each on the farm of its owner, and apart^ from the 
buildings of the neighbors, and the buildings of a French country- 
side, crowded together in a village with a patchwork of farms with 
no buildings in between villages. Draw an idealized map on the 
board to show pupils the little patchwork of French farms without 
house, each farm from ten to forty acres, and the Colorado farms 
with houses on an immense- 160 to 640-acre area. Bring out which 
country is the more thickly populated. 

THIRD GRADE 

The study of the products of your own locality insofar as 
they may be related to the war. How does the growing of wheat by 
your father help your brother and your neighbor's boys in France? 



b GEOGRAPHY 

How does it help the French ? Why haven 't the French plenty of 
wheat themselves ? In the same way, the sugar beet, Mexican beans, 
cattle, hogs, sheep. Trace a bushel of Mexican beans from your 
farm into the hands of a cook in France. Start with your own rail- 
road at nearest place, trace to seaboard on board convoy, landing at 
Bordeaux, on railroad to railhead, and by auto truck to front. 

FOURTH GRADE 

How Colorado is helping in the war. The minerals of Colo- 
rado's mountains and how they are used in war materials. Lead 
and zinc from Leadville, tungsten from Nederland, vanadium from 
Vanadium, etc. : 

Lead — Bullets. 

Zinc — Alloy in brass materials. 

Tungsten and Vanadium — Tempering steel. 

Colorado coking coal from Trinidad and Walsenburg and its 
mission in smelting steel for shrapnel and cannon. 

Colorado pantry open to the Allies: corn, wheat, oats, sugar, 
Mexican beans, navy beans, onions, potatoes, etc. 

Colorado food mLnufacturing industry as aiding the soldiers 
and our Allies: (1) sugar, (2) canned peas and beans, (3) canned 
tomatoes and pumpkin, (4) flour, (5) condensed milk, (6) butter. 

Colorado as a recuperation center for wounded and invalided 
soldiers. Work out here from State Course of Study the good 
feature of Colorado's climate. 

FIFTH GRADE 

The United States.— The resources of which will win the 
war. United States has fourteen times as much iron ore as Germany 
and thirty-three times as much coal. 

United States has 108,000,000 people and Germany 68,000,000. 

Germany is only the size of the single State of Texas, con- 
trasted to the total United States area. 

Germany has not much variety of climate, hence is not capable 
of growing the variety of crops found in the United States. 

1. Germany grows no olives, oranges, figs, dates, almonds, 
peaches, cotton, sugar cane, rice, peanuts. 

2. Germany grows little corn and tobacco. 

3. Germany grows many potatoes, much wheat, oats, rye, 
barley and turnips. 



ftEOGbAPSY 7 

"What crops in the above list grown (List 182) in United 
States yield oils or fats from their seeds? Can you see why 
Germany is suffering an oil and fat famine while we are not? 

Make a map suggesting war material (food, lumber, ammuni- 
tion, etc.) derived from each state. Be able to tell in a moment 
what Michigan, Texas or Arizona contribute to Uncle Sam .in war 
material. 

Discuss the shipbuilding industry, telling where we are build- 
ing our iron, our wooden and our concrete ships. Make a map of 
United States showing the location of the various cantonments, or 
soldier camps. Tell where you have friends. 

SIXTH GRADE 

Europe looms so large upon the world map of the present that 
it should occupy a larger portion of the rest of the time taken 
up than it usually does. This should be done by trespassing upon 
the time usually spent on Asia, Africa, Australia, South America 
and the parts of North America south of the United States. This 
is not suggested as a permanent plan, but one that will give results 
while the interest in the war is at fever pitch. 

THE ARCHITECTURAL PLAN OF EUROPE 

Europe is all built around a core and this core is not the high- 
est mountain range, the Alps. The core of a continent is the oldest 
land of that continent and the Alps are not the oldest land of 
Europe. The core of the European continent runs from northeast 
France and Belgium, through "central and south Germany, to the 
mountains of northern Austria. This core is composed of old 
crystalline rocks ; for instance, granite and slates. 

Now such old crystalline rock areas are likely to be rich in 
metallic minerals, and this is true of this crystalline core. Iron, 
copper, zinc, lead, silver and even nickel are found in this crystal- 
line core. Now most of the crystalline core lies in the Central 
Empires, giving them most of the iron and other minerals, as 
contrasted with France and England. A large part of the iron of 
this crystalline core was acquired by Germany when she stole 
Alsace-Lorraine from France in 1870, and during the present war 
she invaded French Lorraine and occupied the iron fields of Brie, 
hoping to keep them after the war and be the "iron master" of 
Europe. 



8 GEOGHAPHY 

Now we have four great crystalline cores in the United States, 
the Lake Superior Region, the Piedmont Plateau in east United 
States, the Ozark Mountains and the Eocky Mountains. Most of 
our metallic mineral wealth is concentrated in these crystalline core 
centers. 

In the Colorado crystalline core we get lead, zinc, silver, gold, 
copper and tungsten. In Wyoming we get in addition iron. 

When you come out of the mountains at Canon City, Manitou, 
Morrison, Golden or Lyons, you pass into the "hogback" country, 
in which you have layers of rock slightly tilted up towards the 
mountains west of them. These rocks usually end in a cliff -like 
slope on the western side (mountain side) and a gentle incline 
eastward. In these foothill rocks we get our coal and gypsum, two 
of our chief mineral materials. 

Germany also has foothill rocks around her crystalline core 
and in these foothill formations coal and potash, two great mineral 
products, are found. These foothill rocks are in France and Bel- 
gium as well as Germany, and Germany was as much interested in 
invading the coal fields of her enemy as in capturing their cities. 
Lens and Lille are two cities in the French coal district, Liege is one 
in Belgium. 

The coal fields of Poland were also invaded by the Germans. 

Why did Germany desire to invade the coal and iron fields 
of her enemy? The foothill rocks of France, just west of the 
Vosges, give steep wall-like faces to Germany and gentle sloping 
faces west toward Paris. Germany invaded Belgium so as to go 
north of these foothill rocks and later failed at Verdun because of 
them. Why ? 

SEVENTH GRADE 

EACES OF EUROPE 

We are prone to judge the race of a man by the speech upon 
his lips, but obviously this is an absurdity. A negro who speaks 
English is not an Anglo-Saxon, nor is a Mexican Indian who 
speaks Spanish of the Spanish race. Speech means merely a eon- 
tact in the past, often due to conquest, of two peoples. The old 
racial classification, Celtic, Teutonic, Latin and Slavic, has gone 
into the discard today. We no longer believe in the old Aryan 
race theory, which was based entirely on language. 

Instead today we believe in a classification of white mankind 
in Europe on physical characteristics, like. color of hair, color of 



GEOGRAPHY 9 

eyes, stature, shape of head and features. By such a division we 
classify European peoples into three primary races: 

1. Nordic — tall, blond, blue-eyed, long, narrow head and 
elliptical face. 

2. Alpine — short, stocky, "heavy set," broad-headed, round- 
face, medium hair and eyes neither decidedly dark nor light. 

3. Mediterranean — short, slight, almost black hair, usually 
curl}^, dark complexioned, dark eyes. 

All European peoples of the white race come under this classi- 
fication. They are composed of these races or mixtures of them. 

North French — Nordic 
French Central French — Alpine 

South French — Mediterranean 



Great Britain ^""'^ England-Nordic 
W elsh — Mediterranean 



and 
Ireland 



West English, Irish, Highland Scotch- 
Mediterranean and Nordic 



Northwest Germans — Nordic 
Germany Southwest Germans — Alpine 

Prussians — Nordic and Alpine 



Italy 



North Italians — Alpine 

South Italians — Mediterranean. 



Spain — Mediterranean. 

Norway, Sweden and Denmark — Nordic. 



Belgium 



Walloon — Alpine 
Fleming — Nordic 



Seacoast — Nordic 
Holland Zuyder Zee — Nordic and Alpine 

South Holland — Alpine 

Austria-Hungary — Nearly pure Alpine. 

Switzerland— Alpine and little Nordic. 



10 GEOGRAPHY 

Bulgaria, Serbia, Roumania — Largely Alpine. 

p North — Alpine and Mediterranean 

South and Islands — Mediterranean. 

Russia — Nordic and Alpine and small amount of Tartar in 
Ukrainia and south Russia in general. 

SO-CALLED YELLOW OR MONGOLIAN RACES 

It is generally the custom to call the Turks, Hungarians and 
Finns yellow races, because thej'' speak a tongue originally used by 
yellow peoples. All these races are so crossed and recrossed with 
white peoples that all trace physically has been lost of a Mongolian 
origin. The Finns, racially, are tall, blond Nordics, the Hungarian 
(Magyar) and Turk are Alpines. 

THE POLITICAL EFFECT OP SPEECH VS. RACE 

We must not, however, underestimate the effect of language 
on national ideals and solidarity. The French have the three races 
of Europe within their boundaries, — no other nation presents such 
a psychological unity as the French. The French speak one lan- 
guage. The peoples of Austria-Hungary are almost entirely of 
Alpine race. Yet they speak nearly a score of languages, with the 
result that__each language group is endeavoring to be independent 
politically. 

It is not important whether the Roumanians speak a Latin 
tongue because they are really blood relatives of the Italians, or 
that they merely think they are, when really they are not related 
to the Italians. The result is the same in international good 
feeling. 

"We must endeavor to separate the effects of language and race. 
Language determines national ideals, national boundaries, national 
friendships. 

Race determines the physical and mental characteristics of a 
race. Language determines the friendship between Italy and 
Roumania, based on a common Latin speech, — race determines that 
the Italian shall be artistic and the Roumanian shall not be so 
gifted. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF RACES MENTALLY 

In general the Nordic is the race of action, initiative combat- 
iveness and restless emigration,. ' 



GEOGRAPHY 11 

The Alpine is the race of plodding toil — the peasant race of 
Europe, conscientious, hard working, good at detailed task, unedu- 
cated, makes a splendid peasant educated, a splendid microscope 
maker or watchmaker. It is the race interested in details some- 
what unimaginative. 

The Mediterranean is the artistic race, having many potential 
artists, musicians, orators and actors. 

Of course blends of these races produce every imaginable varia- 
tion of temperaments and gifts in the various nations of Europe, 
as all sorts of crosses take place between the various races. 

Have the children in your room grouped according to races 
and also according to nationality. They take a keen interest in such 
work. 

In this grade the newer kingdoms-to-be of Poland, Jugo- 
Slavonia and Czecho-Slavonia should be found with their bound- 
aries. Find the part of Austria that is tied to Italy by language, 
to Roumania by language. This work above outlined is merely for 
the purpose of supplementing the work on Europe in the State 
Course of Study. 

EIGHTH GRADE 

A study of the geography of the eastern and western battle 
fronts, with names of towns and pronunciations. Watch weekly 
periodicals like Literary Digest, Outlook, Independent, etc., also 
daily papers, for such materials. 

Study Asia, Africa, Malaysia and the South Seas in the light 
of the colonies taken from Germany in these regions ; also the trade 
lost to Germany. 

Study South America from the standpoint of lost German 
trade and what America can do in gaining the trade markets. 
Stud}'' the Statesmen's Yearbook for such information. Supple- 
ment with study of these continents in the State Course of Study. 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 

A period of twenty minutes a day for three days a week for 
the first three grades, and of thirty minutes a day for the other 
grades, should be given to this subject. The oral Geography of the 
first three grades can be very closely correlated with Nature study. 
Much of the work should be out of doors, and all should draw on 
actual experience as far as possible. It should deal with experiences 
of the pupils rather than with knowledge gleaned from books, 
although such sources should be drawn upon to supplement the 
experiences of the .child 's environment. 

In the lower grades, the attempt should be to question nature 
in the world about us rather than develop logical scientific knowl- 
edge. The teacher should guide the child as to the things he may 
look for rather than simply to impart knowledge. 

Whatever belongs to the environment of the normal child is 
legitimate material. As the environment of the child in this state 
varies very much, any course of study must be suggestive only. 
The most important thing is for him to be so directed as to see and 
question nature about that which is to be found all about him. The 
smallest school on the plains or in the mountains offers a wealth 
of material for this study. No text-book is a prime necessity, 
although there are many books and charts which would be helpful 
to supplement local observations. 

Subject matter should be the animals and plants that are the 
source of our food, clothing, and shelter; animals and plants that 
are beneficial or injurious to the production of these sources; 
animals which make good pets or which are domesticated so as to 
be useful to man ; plants which make beautiful gardens and parks ; 
and the wild flowers of our state. Food production, conservation 
and distribution are of the greatest importance, and tie all these 
subjects to everyday life. 

Nature phenomena, all about us, furnish appropriate material 
for the teacher who has the inquiring mind and is seeing what 
nature is doing. The heavens, the air, the earth, are open books 
which the children should be taught to question. 

The upper grades may well investigate the laws of heat in rela- 
tion to the heating of houses ; heating of the soil, as related to the 
water; the production of air currents (winds) ; the formation of 
storm centers and expansive force of steam, evaporation and con- 
densation of rain; study the chemistry of the loaf of bread; of a 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 13 

cake of soap ; a few elementary cominon machines as the principle 
of the gas engine (internal combustion engine), the cream separa- 
tor, the electric motor and electric light; electro-magnet, as found 
on the door bell ; or other machines ; elementary agriculture. 

The following is a quotation from a course of study compiled 
by a group of teachers for the Denver schools : 

' ' The method of teaching Nature Study must be scientific, not 
only that conclusions may be the truth, based upon careful and 
continued observation leading to unbiased conclusions after the 
facts are all obtained, but that pupils may gain control of the 
scientific method of observing life and attacking its problems. 

''The teacher who has had little of scientific training should 
become a learner with the children. No way is more legitimate nor 
more fruitful in securing higher results in character training than 
through studies which will open the eyes of student and teacher 
to the beauties of the world, to adaptation of structure to function 
in the natural world, and to the lessons which we may read in 
nature. No place in the world could be richer in subjects than our 
own environment. The color combinations of our landscapes, our 
clouds, our lakes and our mountains; the graceful shapes of our 
mountain trails, our winding streams, the outlines of our ranges — 
all these may be seen from the schoolroom windows. The pro- 
tective coloring of our horned toad, the stubby nature of foliage on 
our dry plains, the Cottonwood tree pruning itself, the habits of 
growth of the lodge pole pine and its cone, whereby it quickly covers 
forest areas denuded by fire, — all illustrate the wonderful and mys- 
terious adaptation of structure to use. 

' ' Not the least of the social ideals attained in this study is that 
gained by the pupil who is allowed to bring information and mate- 
rial to the teacher and classmate, or better, to take his associates 
to the spot where he has made his discoveries. ' ' 

FIRST GRADE 

Autumn. 
1. Plants. 

a. Flowers ; classify as to color, purpose of flowers, 

special study of sunflower, aster, and dandelions. 

b. Seeds; forms, protection, dispersal, use to plants, use 

to man. 

c. Leaves ; evergreen and deciduous, use to plant, forms, 

change in color, use in fertilizing plants. 

d. Roots ; storehouses, edible roots. 



14 NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 

2. Birds. 

Migration, study of finch, robin, and any local birds ; 
usefulness of birds in destruction of insects and 
weed seed. The carrier pigeon would be of great 
interest at the present time, 

3. Insects. 

Preparation for winter by the ant, bee, and cater- 
pillar. 

4. Squirrel's preparation for winter. 

5. Sheep. 

The thickening of coat of wool for winter protection, 
and our use of it for Clothing ; food and habitation 
of sheep ; use as meat, and importance to man. 

6. Formation of clouds ; the direction of winds. 
Food. 

Observation and some participation in gathering and 
storage of food, as beans, potatoes, tomatoes ; seeds, 
as nasturtium, poppy, sweet pea, radish and other 
seeds; observe the removal and storage of crops 
from the field ; fall plowing ; care of cattle and 
poultry. 

Winter. 

1. Forms of water ; snow, frost, hail, sleet. 

2. Domestic or other animals ; the cow, horse, cat, dog ; pets. 

3. Peoples, and methods of living; Eskimo, Indian, etc. 

' ' The Seven Little Sisters, ' ' and like books, are a good 
basis for this work. Whenever possible, pictures show- 
ing the lives of these people and any articles which are 
used by them should be had in the class. 

4. Food. 

Note manner of keeping stored food and visit such stores 
where possible ; the use and care of the cow and her 
products ; the making of butter and cheese ; cooking of 
fruit and vegetables; make candy. 

5. Clothing. . 

Change for season; distinguish between cotton, wool, 
and silk; visit shoemaker, and determine source of 
leather. 

Spring. 

1. Keturning birds ; robin, bluebird, and other local birds. 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 



15 



2. Winds; influence on rain, on temperature. 

3. Germination ; make a window garden and observe germin- 

ation of bean and other seeds. 

4. Awakening of insect life. 

5. Trees ; buds, the rising sap, the growth of the leaves. 

6. Flowers; violet, crocus, daffodil, daisy. 

7. Effects of insect on fertilization; appearance of the 

butterfly. 

8. Hen and chickens and other domestic fowls. 

9. Gardening and food production. 
10. Food. 

Plant seeds in eggshells or small pots to take to home 
gardens to plant; plant four-o 'clocks, nasturtiums, 
radish, lettuce, beans ; spring work of farmer ; visit 
fields to watch plowing and sowing. 

SECOND GRADE 

Autumn. 

1. Flowers; golden rod, primrose, poppy, gladiolus. Sepa- 

rate into endogenous and exogenous— not using the 
names ; use to bee ; to man ; to plant. 

2. Fruit; classify as to color, manner of protecting seeds, 

edibility, other uses. Study apple, nut, orange. 

3. Seeds; review dispersal and protection; food-saving seeds 

for spring. Gather seeds. Study the common food 
seeds, as wheat and corn; the common food tubers, 
potato and turnip. 

4. Fall marketing of farm crops; cornmeal, hominy, break- 

fast foods, flour, cornstarch; preparation of meal or 
flour by grinding. 

5. Clothing ; get a boll of cotton, where possible ; observe 

fibres of raw cotton ;. pick out seeds ; story of cotton by 
pictures, — spinning, weaving, dyeing; observation of. 
sheep ; food ; shearing ; spinning and weaving of wool. 

Winter. 

1. Preparation for winter ; hibernating of the snake, bear, 

and frog; chrysalis forays; winter preparation of bees, 
ants, squirrels. 

2. Snowflakes ; crystal forms ; protection given by snow ; 

conservation of the water supply by snow in mountains. 
The reindeer, wolf, fox, etc. 



16 NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 

3. Nations; Japanese, Chinese, Filipinos. 

4. Study of evergreen tree ; coal ; iron, as needed by man. 

5. Food of races studied, — Japanese, Chinese, Eskimo, In- 

dian; storage of food by squirrel and bee; use of the 
refrigerator ; cold storage plants. 

6. Study evergreen tree, coal, iron, as needed by man. 

Spring. 

1. Germination; peas, beans, corn, pumpkins. 

2. Gardening; necessary soil conditions, fertilizing, irri- 

gating. Second grade pupils should know the common 
vegetables, as radishes, lettuce, peas, beans, etc. They 
should plant and care for small plots, either in home 
or school garden. It is of great economic importance 
that the elementary principles of agriculture be taught 
in all grades. 

3. Winds; as related to climate in home locality; windmills; 

kites ; sailing vessels. 

4. Eeturning birds ; study swallow, wild goose or duck ; nest- 

ing, food, use to man. 

5. Garden friends and enemies. 

6. Butterflies, moths. 

7. Parts of flowers; work of bees; butterflies and wind in 

fertilization. 

8. Pussy willow, sand lily, anemone, daffodil. 

THIRD GRADE 

Autumn. 

1. Flowers; cosmos, dahlia, evening-star, pansy. 

2. Seeds ; special study of tree seeds, maple, cottonwood, elm, 

pine, mountain ash. 
Special study of cotton ; uses of the seed and of the fibre. 
Compare the cotton fibre, in usefulness, with the great 
animal fibres, wool and silk. Manufacture of clothing 
from these fibres. 

3. Fruit ; various ways of preserving for winter use. Study 

the melon, peach, acorn. Gather seeds; plant bulbs, 
crocus, tulip, hyacinth ; start geranium cuttings. 

4. Root crops ; beets, sweet potatoes, etc. 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 17 

5. Winds; add to previous knowledge, as to direction of 

winds, the effect on climate. Clouds; kinds of cloud, 
cause of clouds, rain. 

6. Soil; sand, clay, loam. Cultivation of soil. Study the 

soil in the making in your immediate locality. 

7. Winter preparation of trees, as the cottonwood and 

maple, or any local trees in your neighborhood. 

8. Insect life ; review the life history of insects. Study the 

grasshopper and his habits, as they can be observed by 
the children. 

Winter. 

1. Animal life of locality; also the bear, beaver, rat. 

2. The action of running water and of frost on rocks and 

soil formation. Water-power and generation of elec- 
tricity; natural electrical phenomena. 

3. Nuts; study the peanut, walnut, etc. Value to man as 

food. 

4. Foods ; production of sugar, flour, meat. 

5. Minerals; gold, silver, lead, iron, copper; uses of same 

and importance in industry. 

6. Peoples ; African negro, Mexican and Alaskan life. 

Spring. 

1. Tlie fly and mosquito ; life history ; danger to man : exter- 

mination. 

2. Gardening; the germination of seeds, as flax, squash, 

bean; gardening conditions reviewed; garden friends 
and enemies; the extermination of insect enemies; the 
killing of weeds. Plant the garden. Each child should 
have his own cultivated plot in the home garden. 

3. The value of birds and their need of protection. ^ Nesting ; 

food and habits of woodpecker, or some local bird. Blue 
jay, sparrow, meadow lark. 

4. Flowers; sand lily, anemone, primrose, Easter lily; fruit 

blossoms. 

5. Winds; clouds, rain, dew. Explain reasons causing the 

different forms of moisture. 

6. In what way do sunbeams feed plants? 

Study the sap of the tree. How does it help the tree"? 
How does it help man? 



18 NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 

Stems J endogenous; exogenous. 
Leaves ; parallel veined ; netted veined. 

7. Common butterfly families; name two; monarch, tiger, 

swallow-tailed, suggested. 

8. Products of other countries in common use; tea, coffee, 

rice. 
Stories and references for the suggested work of the first three 
grades may be found in the following list : 

In the Child's World, Roulson. 
How to Tell Stories, Bryants 
Stories to Tell, Bryant. 
The Story Garden, Lindsay. 
The Children's Hour, Bailey. 
The Story Hour, Kate D. Wiggans. 
> Cat Tails and Other Tails, M. H. Howliston. 
Bell of Atri, Tennyson. 
Birds of Killingsworth, Longfellow. 
Mother Stories, Lindsay. 
Storyteller's Book, 'Grady. 
Letters from a Cat, Helen Hunt. 
Cats and Dogs, Johannot. 
Birds I Have Kept, Olive T. Miller. 
Trees and Peaks, Eva Bird Bosworth. 
Practical Nature Study, Coulter & Patterson. 
Bulletin No. 33, United States Department of Agriculture. 
Sleeping Beauty. 
Three Bears. 
Three Pigs. -^ 

FOURTH GRADE 

Autumn. 
I. Observation of birds should be made throughout the year, in 
order to know the real birds. Museum specimens are to be 
had and colored plates are plentiful. 

1. List. 

Choose from bird-list at end of nature study, birds 
which are in children's environment. 

2. Outline for bird study. 

a. When and where seen ; special haunt, seen alone or in 
flocks. 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 19 

b. Appearance; size, color, special markings, flashes of 

color seen when bird flies. 

c. Action; running, hopping, wading, flying. Flight; 

sailing, darting, wavelike motion, much flapping of 
wings, steady, etc. 

d. Songs and calls. 

e. Migration. 

f . Nesting habits. 

g. Food. 

h. Use to man. 

i. Protection. 

j. Bird laws. 

k. Attracting birds. 

II. Continue study of plants started in spring in home gardens or 
fields ; decide which are preferable for food ; the harvesting 
and storing of such foods ; cutting and threshing of wheat 
and oats ; husking and storing of corn ; digging and storage 
or shipment of potatoes ; cutting and threshing of beans. 
Gathering and storing of gladiolus or dahlia tubers. Gather 
various flower seeds for spring planting. 

III. Insects. — The tomato worm will usually be found in gardens ; 
work out its life history by feeding worm until it forms 
chrysalis, and later hatches out the butterfly. 

Lady bugs found in garden; what valuable work are they 

doing ? 
Bees as honey makers ; study life and habits ; feed on and 

prepare sweets which would otherwise be lost ; money value 

to homes. 

Winter. — Mammals. 

1. Suggestive list. 
Black and grizzly bear. 
Mule deer and prong horn. 
Coyote. 

Prairie dog. 
Mountain lion. 
Mountain sheep. 
Buffalo. 
Beaver. 

2. Outline for study and comparison, 
a. Where native. 



20 NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 

b. Movements in walking, running, trotting, jumping, 

crouching, seizing prey, feeding; in play, fear, or 
anger. 

c. Coloring; general color, markings, diff^erences with 

age and season. 

d. Cries and calls. 

e. The animal in repose. 

f . General shape and characteristic features. 

g. Care and feeding in captivity, 
h. Food and habits in wild state. 

i. . The young. 

j. Relation to man. Destructive as well as advantageous 

qualities. Method of control of injurious animals 

like the rat. 

3. Study the phases of moon for one month of the year, as 

in January, from new moon to new moon; its varying 
shapes and positions in the sky; its path across the 
sky; the time from one phase to the next; direction of 
travel; reason for its different appearances. 

4. Keep a shadow-stick throughout the year, measuring and 

recording the lengths of shadow and comparing with 
the variation of hours of sunshine in the day ; associate 
with latitude ; compare the varying amount of heat 
received by the earth and influence on seasons. 

Spring. 
IV. Trees and Shrubs. 

1. Value of forests and trees to Colorado. 

2. Practical applications. 

a. Kinds to plant. Our rapid growing natural trees, 

Cottonwood and box-elder, willows and poplars; 
good for a time or where others will not grow 
readily ; but the slower growing, such as maple, 
elm, and ash are more desirable. 

b. Rules for planting. 

c. Care until well started. 

d. Fruit trees which will bear in your locality. 

e. Ornamental shrubs. 

V. Continue stud.y of trees and shrubs about your school yard 
or in your locality, including evergreens and deciduous 
trees. 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 21 

Consider the following points : Differences in shapes and 
masses of foliage ; relation of trunks and branches ; changes of 
color ; development of seed or fruit ; yearly growth ; the formation, 
growth and protection of buds ; swelling and bursting of buds, their 
location, terminal and lateral buds; the use of buds; flowers, fruit, 
distribution of fruit ; insect enemies and helpers ; value of bird 
visitors ; spraying to kill insect enemies ; cultivation of ground 
about trees ; pruning ; raising of small fruits, currants, raspberries, 
etc., on small plots of ground in gardens or yards. Emphasize the 
economic value and value in health of these fruits to the family. 
Even in the arid parts of the state, small hardy fruits may be 
raised by local watering and by protection from winds. 

FIFTH GRADE 

The general idea is a study of plants, animals, and soils in 
relation to their value and disadvantages in gardens, lawns, and 
fields, and a beginning of a study of agriculture; also a study of 
conservation in methods of using fuel, in heating houses. 

I. Autumn. 

1. Reports with sketches, maps, and exhibits of products of 

summer gardens. Lists of cultivated flowers and 
vegetables. 

2. Injurious insects which are laying eggs in the ground, on 

trees, and in other places. How to control them. Gov- 
ernment bulletins will be helpful. See Relation Between 
Birds and Insects, Year-book, 1908 ; The Grasshopper 
Problem, Cir. 84, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau 
^ of Entomology; Usefulness of the American Toad, 

Farm Bulletin 196. 

3. Fall preparation for next summer's garden and lawn. 

a. ^ Clearing away garden refuse. 

b. Turning over soil and fall fertilizing where advisable. 

c. Gathering seeds. 

d. Leaving lawn grass proper length. 

e. Burning weeds on nearby vacant lots. 

II. Winter. 

1. Study of snowfall with special reference to conservation 
of water for next summer 's irrigation ; value of forests 
in water storage and prevention of floods. 



22 NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 

2. Great mineral resources of state ; iron, coal, copper, silver, 

lead ; other valuable metals ; building stones ; granite, 
sandstone, lava stone, marble. 

3. Toward spring, make planting plans for season, and test 

seeds by germination. 

4. Observe winter birds. 

5. Combustion, and heating of houses ; fuel ; conditions neces- 

sary to burning; heating by means of stoves, hot-air 
furnaces, steam, hot water; ventilation; danger of over- 
heating ; saving fuel ; sources of fuel — wood, coal, gas ; 
sun as source of all energy; connection between dis- 
covery of fire and growth of civilization. Study coal ; 
kinds of coal beds; methods of mining, transportation; 
making and uses of charcoal and coke. 

III. Spring. 

1. Identify most common weeds. Study methods of control 

of weeds which infest lawns and gardens, as plantain, 
dandelion, wild lettuce, and the various wild grasses. 

2. Report on work done on lawns and gardens for the coming 

summer. 

3. Take up poultry, bee-keeping, raising of hares, or some 

such specialized topic within experience of the pupils. 
4.' Keep record of the return of the birds. Study nesting; 
protection of birds and eggs ; attracting useful birds by 
providing houses and material for nests, food, drinking 
and bathing places. 

Elementary Agriculture. 

1. Distinction between dead and living matter; protoplasm; 

amoeba; cells. 

2. Soil and soil water in growth of plants. Evaporation from 

soil; from plants; capillarity in soil; circulation of 
water in soil ; taken up by plants ; need of cultivation ; 
weeds rob plants of water ; prevention of waste of soil 
water. 

3. Feeding by plants ; food taken in solution ; water, mineral 

matter and carbon as plant food; sources of this food, 
the air and the soil. 
' 4. Making of starch in the presence of the sun and chloro- 
phyll ; made in the leaves of the plant ; sun as source 
of all energy. 



NATUKE STUDY AND SCIENCE 23 

5. Parts of plants as connected with growth; roots, stems, 

root hairs, buds, leaves. 

6. Soil; origin, good soil, humis, cultivation of soil, fertiliza- 

tion by the introduction of plant food, as nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid and potash. Common fertilizers; 
manure, commercial fertilizers and fertilization by- 
bacteria on roots of alfalfa and other legumes. World- 
wide search for potash supplies today. Fertilization 
by plowing under crops ; rotation of crops. 

7. Saving of soil moisture; by cultivation, by drainage, by 

having humis in soil, by mulching. 
Irrigation and dry farming. Influence of irrigation in fer- 
tilizing land; examples in our irrigated sections, in 
Nile Valley. 

SIXTH GRADE 

I. Tree Study, 

1. Observe and make lists of various kinds seen. Have 

pupils name trees at sight and from leaf, bark, picture, 
description. 

2. How trees live. 

a. Boots furnish mouths to get food from soil. 

b. Leaves serve as breathing organs and help to prepare 

food, 
e. Trunk and branches transport food and spread leaves 
to light. 

3. General appearance of trees from distance; spreading, 

compact, loose, conical, drooping, erect, etc. 

4. Bark. Describe. 

.5. Leaves. Shape, color, margin, etc. 
6. Usefulness and importance, 

a. Use of lumber, wood, shade, nuts, etc. 

b. Which grow faster, hard or soft woods? 

c. Which are more desirable to plant, rapid- or slow- 

growing trees ? 

II. Lumbering. 

1. Make collection of available kinds of wood; learn to 
recognize each kind; hard woods, soft woods; list of 
trees, making each kind of lumber; give at least one 
use of pine, oak, poplar, hickory, mahogany; cause of 



24 NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 

grain in wood ; what is quarter-sawed lumber, and why 
more valuable? 

2. Visit lumber camp or mill, if possible ; describe cutting of 

trees J transportation of logs to mills and making of 
lumber. What may be done to prevent forest fires? 

3. What is the governpaent doing in making new forests 

(reforestration) ? Why? 

III. Forests op Colorado. 

1. What their protection and replanting means to the state. 

-Forestry department. Forest reserves. Life and work 
of forest rangers. ''The average saw -log cut today 
began to grow about the time Washington used his 
hatchet. ' ' — Enos Mills. 

2. Special study of evergreens of Colorado (Reference, 

Evergreens of Colorado, by Burton 0. Longyear. 
Publication No. 1, State Agricultural College). 

a. Learn to recognize a few cone-bearing trees ; yellow 

pines, silver spruces, etc. 

b. Leaves. Needles; count number of needles in bun- 

dles, with or without sheath at base ; uses of 
needles ; moaning of wind in pines. 

c. Cones. Position on trees; scales thick, hard, and 

woody, or thin, leathery, and papery ; scales protect 
seeds ; winged seeds ; nearly all species take two 
years to mature ; pollen producing cones distinct 
from those which produce seeds. 

d. Uses of cone-bearing trees. Lumber, pitch, balsam, 

turpentine. Uses of Colorado evergreens. 

IV. Fish and Wild Game of Colorado. 
1. National game preserves. 
2._ Laws for birds, fish, and game protection. 

3. Fishes. 

a. Characteristics. Fins, tail, gills, breathing, swim- 

ming, bladder. 

b. Work of hatcheries and re-stocking streams. 

c. Study of the trout. 

V. Soils, Rocks and Physical Features. 

1. Review and intensify study of clay, loam, sand. 



IstaWre study and science 25 

2. Kinds of rocks one can pick up in vicinity. Crystals, 

petrified wood, water-worn stones, igneous rocks, frag- 
ments of sandstone, granite, etc. 

3. Minerals. Make a collection of minerals in your locality ; 

name as far as you can; classify for each of these 
qualities^ making lists of classes; hardness, weight, 
color, transparent, translucent or opaque, elasticity. 

4. Collect samples of iron, lead, copper, silver, gold, and 

other valuable ores. Learn to tell by sight, the chief 
metal in each sample. Effect of great heat on metals ; 
origin of clinkers in stove ; of glass ; compare lava, 
porphyry, pumice stone with limestone, sandstone or 
shale. Effect of fire. 

5. Visit quarries, mines, smelters or foundries, if possible. 

Make collection of building stones of the community. 
Brick and brick-making. Cement-making; concrete 
construction. 

Agriculture. 

1. Germination of seeds ; soil water and air necessary ; value 

of pressing the soil about seeds; selection of seeds. hav- 
ing good germs; prevention of fungus diseases, as smut 
by dipping wheat seed in blue vitriol solution. 

2. Testing of seeds for germination ; seed testers and prac- 

tical use of same ; loss of power of germination with 
age. 

3. Study method of growth of seeds by planting beans, 

radishes, peas, wheat. 

4. Seed improvement by selection ; cross fertilization. 

5. Propagation from buds, layering, cuttings, grafting. 

6. Transplanting; preserve root hairs; trim tops to corre- 

spond to rootlets broken off; plant in fine, rich soil; 
trim off broken and mangled roots; keep roots moist 
before and after planting; keep the soil moist and 
shaded; transplant trees and shrubs only when leaves 
are off. 

SEVENTH GRADE 

In presenting science and nature study to the seventh, as well 
as to the eighth grade, it is the aim to meet the demands for the 
curious in pupils of this age ; to create a liking for science, and to 



26 i^AtURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 

lay a broad informational basis. The studies are offered in the 
light of present needs, rather than as a preparation for future 
work. 

Where there is a Junior High School, the work in agriculture 
suggested here should be briefly covered in the sixth grade, so as 
to keep the unity of the work. 

I. Weather. 

1. Cloud forms. 

2. Forms of precipitation. 

3. Temperature of atmosphere. 

4. Humidity of atmosphere. - 

II. In the study of climate, continually observe the adaptation of 
structure of plant and animal life to local conditions. 

III. Use lists of Colorado plants and animals to be found at end 
of this course to interest pupils in identifying as many 
species as possible. To be able to recogTiize and name many 
of our wild flowers and weeds, mammals, birds and trees 
is an accomplishment worth while. 

IV. Study at least one of the folloiving areas of land carefidly, to 
discover the plant and animal life present. This is a valu- 
able exercise, especially if pupils make individual 
observations with notebook in hand and report to class. 
Each time over the tract will add something new. Nothing 
is too insignificant to notice : 

1. The Foothills Forest. 

2. The Irrigating Ditch. 

3. The Shallow Pool. 

4. The Eiver.' 

5. The Slope of the Hill. 

6. The Swamp. 

7. The Arid Plain. 

8. The Country Roadside. 

9. The Yucca Patch. 

10. The Cactus Area. 

11. The Sagebrush Area. 

12. The Dry Creek-bed. 

13. The Irrigated Garden or Lawn. 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 27 

V. Agriculture. 

1. Eradication of weeds ; early and careful cultivation ; pre- 
, vention of seeding ; methods of killing ; annuals ; 

biennials; perennials. 

2. Some common weeds; Canadian thistle, burdock, ox-eye, 

daisy, cockle bur; sow thistle; Eussian thistle; sour 
dock; wild mustard; wild parsnip; quack grass; wild 
carrot; bind-weed or wild morning glory; prickly let- 
tuce; long-leaved plantain. Methods of elimination 
based on habits. Study weeds of your locality and 
methods of eradication. 

3. Insects and parasites injurious to plants; potato beetle, 

bean beetle, grasshopper, plant louse, etc. Fungus 
parasites. Study habits and methods of extermination. 
Various bulletins by the Department of Agriculture 
and by the State Experiment Station will be furnished 
on application. These bulletins treat folly on all 
classes of injurious insects and parasites. 

4. Animals that destroy insects; ichneumon fly larvae 

destroy tree borers ; lady bugs destroy plant lice, scales, 
and other insects, and have been largely imported for 
that purpose; dragon flies are great enemies of mos- 
quitoes, gnats, and flies ; toads feed largely on insects ; 
swallows, vireos, woodpeckers, chickadees, wrens, swifts, 
cuckoos and flycatchers live largely on insects. Most 
owls and hawks catch many mice and rats. Study 
methods of bird-raising and protection as aids to the 
farmei*. 

5. Gardening; the importance of the garden to the town 

dweller, from a financial standpoint; the raising of 
small fruits in the garden, as strawberries, raspberries, 
currants, etc. The garden furnishes the practical 
thing which every boy and girl may care for with 
pleasure and profit, and which may be of the highest 
educational value. Each pupil in the seventh and 
eighth grade should have a definite part in maintaining ' 
the home by engaging in gardening or farming. 
Methods of conducting that work should be the founda- 
tion for part of the school work. 



28 NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 

EIGHTH GRADE 

I. Autumn. 

1. Gathering and caring for crops from vegetable garden. 

Methods of storing, preserving, drying, evaporating. 
The silo. Cold storage. Parts used in food. 

2. Cuttings. Bulbs. Grafting. Layering of grape vines 

and currants. 

3. Injurious insects and fungi and their relation to the 

plants, shrubs, or trees on which they are found. 
Spraying trees and plants; insecticides. Relation of 
plants to soil culture. Beneficial insects, snails, slugs, 
toads and bird visitors and their relations to the garden. 

4. Woods and reasons for their success. 

II. Winter. Topics chosen from outline on "Raw Materials of 
Colorado" and "Some Scientific Principles." 

III. Spring. 

1. Seed-testing. Arrangement of crops in garden according 

to space needed, amount of light necessary, etc. Cul- 
tivation of garden. Flower garden. Care of lawn, 
shrubs, and perennials. 

2. Hot-beds. Cold frame. Transplanting. 

3. Rotation of crops. 

4. Needs of plants. Light, water, food. Method of obtain- 

ing these. 

5. Plans for landscape gardening. 

6. Return of the birds. Bird boxes, nests, etc. Economic 

value. 

RAW OR MANUFACTURED MATERIALS OF <!oLORADO 

In connection with the industrial geography of seventh and 
eighth grades, study the nature side of the following raw materials 
produced in Colorado: 

1. Agricultural, including grazing products. 

a. Hay, potatoes, fruit, cattle, sheep. Where and how 

raised, varieties, conditions best adapted to their 
growth. 

b. Cattle-raising; breeds of cattle raised for beef, and 

those for dairying purposes ; characteristics of these 
classes; study specifically the kind best adapted to 
the local community; any improvement possible 
upon the methods used in your locality (could 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 29 

more cattle or better methods of feeding and selling 
be used?) ; products of every-day use from cattle; 
importance of increased production in the United 
States. 

c. Dairying; a growing and profitable industry in this 

state ; high food value at small cost in dairy 
products; definite return to small farmer on dry 
land farms, as well as on irrigated lands; dairy 
breeds adapted to your local conditions ; methods of 
improving breeds; the cream separator and Bab- 
cock tester ; results of care in feeding and handling 
cows. 

d. Milk; composition (water, casein, sugar, mineral, 

albumin) ; food value ; fat globules in butter ; casein 
and fat in cheese ; essential methods in making each. 
Pasteurization of milk. The International Har- 
vester Company furnishes charts on these subjects, 
at cost of transportation. 

e. (Sheep-, swine- and horse-raising should be the sub- 

jects studied where these are the prime industries 
of the community.) An elementary book on 
agriculture should be in use in every rural and 
village community. 

f. Poultry-raising; egg breeds, as Leghorns, Minorcas, 

Houdans; meat breeds, as Bramahs, Cochins and 
Cornish, Indian Games; general purpose breeds, as 
Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds, 
etc. ; building houses ; care ; feeding for eggs or for 
meat; keeping free from parasites; another source 
of revenue for the boy or girl on farm or in town 
home. 

g. Bees; honey as a food; study of life and habits of 

bee; method of honey production; profit in small 
plants; value of honey as a substitute for sugar. 
Encourage pupils to begin with a stand of bees. 

2. Review metalliferous resources of state. 

3. Lumber production of state. Kinds produced; kinds 

imported; forest reservations; possibility of increasing 
lumber by planting; by conservation supply. Identify 
lumber used ill a carpenter shop. 



30 NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 

4. , Gold, silver, coal, lead, tungsten, radium, oil ; study 
methods of mining and smelting ores. Visit smelters, 
where available. Eare ores. 

SOME SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES 

1. Evaporation and condensation as related to rainfall; 

making of sugar or syrups from juices of cane, beet, or 
maple tree; effect on temperature; condensation in 
relation to making artificial ice ; drying of fruits. 

2. Barometer : Mercury and aneroid ; what keeps the mer- 

cury in. inverted tube ; what is measured ; what is high 
and low barometer ; how may it measure altitude ; how 
foretell changes in weather? 

3. Thermometer : In closed and not open tube ; what causes 

mercury to fall or rise in tube ; boiling point ; freezing 
point; effect of humidity of air on temperature; dry 
bulb thermometer. 

4. Water supply ; wells, lakes, streams ; storing of water in 

snows of mountains; water pressure of town supply; 
securing pure supply; filtering; chemical purification; 
soft and hard water, 

5. Mechanics of liquids; expansion under heat to form 

steam ; use in engines ; contraction to 37°F. and then 
expansion as it freezes; why does ice float; poor con- 
ductor of heat; effect of large bodies of water on 
climate. 

6. Study a few constellations in their daily and , yearly 

movements. 

A LIST OP POSSIBLE PROBLEMS FOR SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES; 

choose those which seem to be of the greatest interest to a particular 
school. In presenting these problems to the pupils for solution, no 
thought is given as to which particular science may be involved, 
but rather that they shall, be topics of interest ; and many of them 
are to be met in the pupil 's immediate environment. 

Present these subjects as problems for solution, and help in 
the solution by guiding the thought of the pupil, rather than by 
telling him things. 

A brief outline of a type of lessons is given to suggest a pos- 
sible method of treatment of some of the topics : 
1. The aeroplane. 

How is it possible to make a " heavier-than-air " machine rise 
into the air? 



^TATUBE STUDY AlS^D SClElSrCE 31 

What is the difference in the way a balloon floats in the air 
and that in which the aeroplane rises in the air ? 

What is buoyancy? 

What is the difference between the aeroplane and the di- 
rigible? What similarity? 

What are the advantages of each kind of these air machines ? 
• How is the gas engine an essential to the success of any of 
these machines ? Which ? 

Name some of the essential parts of the aeroplane, and give 
the uses. 

What is the meaning of " a tail spin" ? " a nose dive ' ' f 

For what particular purposes are each of these air machines 
used in the war? 

Which may be used for commercial purposes in peace times ? 

A cake of soap. 

Why is it said that "The state of civilization of a people 
may be determined by the amount of soap used"? 

What are the essentials for soap-making? (Lye from wood 
ashes and fat.) 

Describe how lye and fat were provided by the American 
pioneer. Describe how these pioneers made soap. (Many 
parents will be able to furnish this information.) 

An interesting test of acid and alkali may be made by get- 
ting litmus paper from the druggist and testing vinegar, 
and also a solution of lye. 

What is ''soft soap"? "hard soap"? What is the dif- 
ference in manufacture? 

Why do some soaps irritate the hands so much more than 
others ? 

How does soap assist in getting the dirt and grease off the 
skin ? 

(Soap emulsifies the oils of the skin, and the dirt is carried 
off with the emulsified oils.) 

Experiments : Make a lather on the hands, and then wash it 
off under running water. Notice how the dirt slips off 
with the lather. 

Mix some kind of oil with water and shake in a test tube, 
and see that the oil soon separates from the water after 
coming to rest, and remains above the water. Shake with 
a solution of soap, and note the difference in action. 

What is "hard water"? How may hard water be 
"broken"? 



32 Nature study and science 

Why will soap and warm water remove dirt more readily 
than soap and cold water ? 

3. The nodules on alfalfa roots. 

Dig up part of a root, and examine. Do the same with the 
roots of other plants^ and see if all have like nodules. 
(The legumes are the plants which are likely to have the 
nodules on the roots.) 

Do these nodules have anything to do with the productive- 
ness of the plants ? 

Do the plants having the nodules seem to thrive less than 
those having no nodules ? 

What is meant by nitrate-fixing bacterial? 

Is nitrogen to be found in the air ? Can plants get nitrogen 
from the air ? What are nitrates ? 

What are the principal chemical elements used by plants? 

What are protein foods'? What chemical element is found 
in protein food that is not in carbonaceous food? 

Why does the growing of alfalfa enrich the soil? 

4. Suggested topics. 

Refrigeration; water supply; ventilation; steam engine 
internal combustion engine, or gas engine; automobile 
mining ; explosions, pure air in mines ; story of bread 
story of the match ; heating houses by hot air, by steam, 
by hot water ; pumps ; siphon ; cream separator ; pressure 
cooker ; fireless cooker ; vacuum sweeper ; sewing machine. 
Bacteria, useful and harmful ; carbon and its compounds ; 
combustion ; the story of limestone ; the mariner 's com- 
pass; meteors; electro magnets; door bells; telegraphy; 
wireless. 
It will be seen that many of these topics will suggest search 

through textbooks as well as observation and personal experience. 

The pupil should gradually be taught to add to his own personal 

experiences by studying the experiences of others. 

It is suggested that in schools where several grades are in 

the same room, the first, second, and third grades may be grouped 

together for nature study ; the fourth, fifth, and sixth may form a 

second group. The seventh and eighth may study the same 

problems. 

BOOKS OF REFERENCE 

1. "Nature Study for Primary and Grammar Grades' 



.Cummings 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 33 

2. ''Practical Nature Study" Coulter and Patterson 

3. "First Principles of Agriculture" Goff and Mayne 

4. "Agriculture for Beginners" ..Burke, Stevens and Hill 

5. "Science for Beginners" Fall 

6. "Physics in the Household" Lynde 

7. ' ' General Science ' ' , Blhuff 

8. "General Science" ....Elhuff and Eikenberry 

9. "Elementary Science" Coulter 

10. "First Course in General Science",.... Barber 

11. "First Year Science" Snyder 

Classified list of Bulletins of the Colorado Experiment Sta- 
tion may be had on application to the station at Fort Collins. 

Classified lists of all government bulletins may be had by 
application to the Department of Public Documents at Washing- 
ton, D. C, on the payment of ten cents. These bulletins may be 
had through your representatives in Congress, free, or upon the 
payment of a small fee. Every school district should be supplied 
with those which meet local conditions. 

NATURE STUDY LISTS FOR REFERENCE 

In the following lists from Colorado Flora and Fauna, the 
attempt has been to name only those species which will most 
readily come within the observation of Denver children in the 
city and its suburbs, and in short trips on the plains and into 
the foothills. In the upper grades, however, the work may be 
greatly enriched by reading and hearing of plants and animals 
of our state which we cannot always study at first hand. 

Bulletin No. 33 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture is a 
biological survey of Colorado, and it has this to say on the effect of 
physiographic and climatic features of Colorado on faunal and 
floral distribution: "Altitudinal variation in Colorado has a pro- 
nounced effect upon both temperature and moisture. As tempera- 
ture is a very important factor in the distribution of life, Colorado 
is an exceptionally favorable field for illustrating vertical distribu- 
tion. The wide range of elevation furnishes favorable conditions 
for characteristic species of five of the seven major-life zones of 
North America. ' ' 

THE MOST COMMON BIRDS OF DENVER 

For others, less common, see The Birds of Denver, An Anno- 
tated List, by W. H. Bergtold. 



34 ^ NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 

Dr. Bergtold says: "The situation of, and the conditions 
about Denver, make it a peculiarly interesting place for the study 
of Western bird life ; its geographical location makes it possible to 
see within its boundaries species and subspecies usually restricted 
to Eastern, Western, or Southern Faunae, the City of Denver 
being at the overlapping edges of these four characteristic bird 
regions. ' ' 

Permanent Residents. 

House Finch — "our characteristic native city birds." 
Flicker. ' 

English Sparrow, 
Magpie. 

« 

Desert Horned Lark. 
Ring-necked Pheasant. 

Winter Residents. 

Pink-sided Junco, and other Juncos. 
Rocky Mountain Creeper. 
Long-tail Chickadee. 
Long-crested Jay. 
Tree Sparrow. 

Common During Migration and Transient Visitors. 
Ducks — Mallard, Shoveler, Redhead. 
Hawks — Marsh, Sharp-shinned. 
Long-eared Owl. 
Prairie Falcon. 
Bronzed Crackle. 

Summer Residents. 
Killdeer. 

Western Mourning Dove. 
Desert Sparrow Hawk. 
Burrowing Owl (in suburbs). 
Say's Phoebe. 
Rock Wren. 

Woodpeckers — Rocky Mountain Hairy, Red-headed. 
Western Nighthawk. 
Kingbird. 

Brewer's Blackbird. 
Yellow Warbler. 
Western Warbling Vireo. 
Black-headed Grosbeak. 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 35 

Bullock's Oriole. 
Western Lark Sparrow. 
Western Chipping Sparrow. 

Western Mockingbird (irregular summer visitant). 
The following are summer residents, but some may be seen all 
winter : 

Yellow-headed Blackbird. 
Red-wing Blackbird. 
Western Meadowlark. 
Western Robin. 
Rocky Mountain Bluebird. 

wild flowers 
Buttercup Family. 
Monkshood. 

Blue and Red Columbine. 
Larkspur. 

Anemone (Wind Flower). 
Trailing Buttercup. 
Basque Flower. 

Yucca Family. 

Yucca or Soapweed. 

Violet Family. 
Yellow Violet. 
Prairie Violet. 

Caper Family. 

Rocky Mountain Bee Plant (Cleome). 

Mustard Family. 
Wall Flower. 
Golden Whitlow. 

OxALis Family. 
Wood Sorrel. 

Mallow Family. 
Rose Mallow. 
Poppy Mallow. 

Spurge Family. 

Snow-on-the-Mountain . 

Geranium Family. 
Cranesbill. 



36 ~ nature study and science 

Heath Family. 
Kinnikinic. 

Gentian Family. 
Fringed Gentian. 
Prairie Gentian. 
Blue Gentian. 

Potato Family, 

Purple Ground Cherry. 
Buffalo Bur. 

Morning Glory Family. 
Bush Morning Glory. 

Phlox Family. 

Trumpet Phlox. 

Borage Family. 
Chiming Bells. 
Forget-me-not. 

Snapdragon Family. 
Painter's Brush. 
Butter and Eggs. 
Penstemons, Dark and Blue 
Scarlet Bugler. 
Blue Beardtongue. 

Mint Family. 
Brook Mint. 
Horse Mint. 

Rose Family. * . 
Wild Rose. 
Gold Cup. 
Cinquefoil. 

Pea Family. 

Golden Banner. 
Silvery Lupine. 
' Prairie Clover. 
Sweet Pea. 
Purple Vetch. 
Loco. 
Alfalfa. 
Prairie Pea. 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 37 



Saxifrage Family. 
Wild Gooseberry. 

Evening Primrose Family. 
Fireweed. 
Evening Primrose. 

Mentzelia Family. 
Evening Star. 

Cactus Family. 
Prickly Pear. 
Purple Cactus. 

Parsley Family. 

Mountain Parsley. 

Honeysuckle Family, 
Twin Flower. 
Snowberry. 

Bluebell Family. 
Purple Bellflower. 
Harebell. 

Aster Family. 
Blue Lettuce. 
False Dandelion. 
Goatsbeard. 
Rose Thistle. 
Goldenrod. 
Daisy, Purple. 
Purple Aster. 
Gum Weed. 
Column Flower. 
Black-eyed Susan. 
Sunflower. 
Gaillardia. 

Lily Family. 
Sand Lily. 
Wild Onion. 
Red Lily. 
Mariposa Lily. 

Spiderwort Family. 
Spider Lily. 



38 natuee study and science 

Iris Family. 
Blue Flag. 
Blue-eyed Grass. 

tree list 

Native Trees of Colorado. 

1. Deciduous. 

Cottonv;ood. ' 

Box Elder. 

Willow. 

2. Evergreens of Colorado (all coniferae). 

a. Pines. 

Foxtail Pine. 
Timber Pine. 
Yellow or Bull Pine. 
White or Lodge. 
Pinyon Pine. 

b. Spruces. 

Colorado Blue Spruce or Silver Spruce. 
Engelmann Spruce. 

c. Firs. 

Douglas Fir. 

Alpine Fir or Balsam Fir. 

White Fir. 

d. Junipers and Cedars. 

Utah Jumper, 

Rocky Mountain Red Cedar. 

One-seeded Red Cedar. 

(Note: The most helpful study on Evergreens of Colorado is 
by Dr. Longyear, of Colorado State Agricultural College.) 

Trees Which Have Been Introduced. 
Ashes. 
Birches. 
Buckeye. 
Catalpa. 
Elms. 

Hackberry. 
Horse Chestnut. 
Linden. 
Locusts. 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 39 

Maples. 

Mulberry. 

Oaks. 

Olive, Eussian. 

Poplars. 

Sycamore. 

Walnut. 

Wild Cherry. 

Willows. 

Many of these varieties may be found on private grounds ; 
Fairmount Cemetery and the Capitol Grounds have more 
varieties than City Park. A diagram of Capitol Grounds, 
showing location of trees, may be found in "Trees and 
Peaks," by Eva Bird Bosworth. "The Capital City of 
Colorado has become a private forestry experiment 
station." — Enos Mills. 

Mammals. 

Whitefooted Mouse. 

Harvest-Mouse. 

Wood Eat. 

Pocket Gopher. 

Black-tailed Jack Eabbit. 

Bailey Cottontail. 

Long-tailed Skunk. 

Spotted Skunk. 

Prairie Dog. 

Coyote. 

Swift Fox. 

Badger. 

Ferret. 

Weasel. 

Long-eared, Hairy-lipped, Say, and Brown Bats. 

Chipmunk. 

Eock Squirrel. 

Ground Squirrel. 

Beaver. 

Muskrat. 

Eeptiles and Batrachians. 
Eattlesnake. 
Bull Snake. 



40 NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 

Blue Racer. 

Hog-nosed Snake. 

Lizards — Horned Toad and Sand Swift. 

Toad. 

Frog. 

Salamander. 

Fish. 

Trout. 

Grayling. 

Whitefish. 

Bass. 

Catfish. 

Sunfish. 

Perch. 

Wall-eyed Pike. 

Darter. _ 

Minnows. 

Sculpin. 

STATE CODE 

Protection op Birds 

It shall be unlawful for any person at any time within the 
corporate limits of the City and County of Denver to frighten, 
shoot at, wound, kill, take, capture, ensnare, net, trap or in any 
other manner molest or injure any robin, lark, whippoorwill, finch, 
sparrow, thrush, wren, martin, swallow, snowbird, bobolink, red- 
winged blackbird, crow, raven, oriole, kingbird, mocking-bird, 
song-sparrow or other song bird or insectivorous bird; or in any 
manner molest or injure the nest, eggs or young of any such bird, 
or have in possession the nest, eggs, young or body of any such bird. 
Any person violating the provisions hereof, upon conviction, shall 
be fined in a sum not less than one dollar nor more than fifty 
dollars for each offense. 

Game and Fish Laws of Colorado as Amended in 1917. 
Section 2759: • ^ 

It shall be lawful to pursue, take or kill, during the open 
season therefor, in the manner, of the kind, and for the purpose 
and to the number and extent in this division provided, the follow- 
ing game and fish, and the open season therefor in each year shall 
begin and end as hereafter provided, both dates inclusive, namely : 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 41 

First. For deer having horns with two or more points on each 
horn, October 1 to October 4, commencing in 1918. 

Second. For male mountain sheep having horns, September 
25 to September 30, commencing in 1924. 

Third. For male antelope having horns, September 25 to 
September 30, commencing in 1924. 

Fourth. For elk having horns, November 1 to November 5, 
commencing in 1924. 

Fifth. For prairie chickens, mountain and willow grouse, 
September 15 to October 1. 

Sixth. For sage chickens, August 15 to September 1. 

Seventh, For pheasants and other grouse indigenous to this 
state, September 1 to September 20, commencing 1924. 

Eighth. For ducks, geese, brants, swans, plovers, and other 
wading, marsh and shore birds and water fowls and for yellow- 
legged snipes, September 16 to December 31. 

Ninth. For doves, from August 15 to September 1. 

Tenth. For bob white quail, October 1 to October 20, com- 
mencing in 1924. 

Eleventh. For crested quail, October 1 to October 30, com- 
mencing in 1924. 

Twelfth. For rabbits and hares, no closed season. 

2759 A. The open season in running streams for trout and 
grayling, not less than 7 inches in length, shall begin May 25 and 
end October 31, and the open season for trout and grayling in lakes 
at an altitude not to exceed 7,500 feet shall begin May 1 and end 
October 31. And in lakes at an altitude over 7,500 feet, from June 
15 to October 31. 

The open season for white fish, bass, cat-fish, sunfish, perch, 
and wall-eyed pike shall begin May 25 and end October 31. 

No fishing shall be done between the hours of 8 :30 o'clock p. m. 
and 4 o 'clock a. m. 

2759 b. The right given by this division is limited to food 
purposes, and to the number of birds and fish, and pounds of fish, 
as hereinafter provided as follows : 

Prairie chickens, mountain and wijiow grouse and such 
chickens, 10 birds in any one day, and not more than 15 in pos- 
session at any one time. 

Ducks, geese, brants, swans, plover and other wading, marsh or 
shore birds, not more than 20 birds of one kind, or in the aggregate 
of all kinds, in any one day, and not more than 3'5 in possession at 
any one time. 



42 NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 

And the right herein given to take fish is limited to any one 
calendar day not to exceed 15 pounds, and no person shall have in 
his possession more than 20 pounds of fish at one time. 

Nor shall any person take or kill or have in his possession more 
than one deer in any open season, and no person under the age of 
18 years be permitted to hunt big game under the provisions of this 
act, nor shall any person under 12 years of age be entitled to hunt 
except on his own premises or those of a parent or guardian, or 
take, kill or have in his possession more than half the number of 
birds or half the number of weight of fish as herein provided. 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 43 

BIRDS 

From Mrs. Sherman's Circular Letter on Conservation 
Federal Migratory Bird Law 

The conservation of bird life is one of the necessities of the day. 
"We easily recognize their esthetic influence and their sentimental 
charm, but comparatively few appreciate their great economic 
value. Crops, fruit and trees are constantly preyed upon by 
insects. In the United States, insects cause a loss to agriculture of 
more than half a billion dollars each year. Birds, more than any 
other agency, hold these pests in check. 

This enormous annual loss shows that we do not now have birds 
enough. The necessity is plain, therefore, of protecting those we 
have and thus giving them a chance to increase. By the conserva- 
tion of bird life, we increase the productivity of the earth. This in 
turn helps to decrease the cost of living. 

By the passage of the new Federal Migratory Bird Law the 
government now protects our migratory birds, largely the insec- 
tivorous and rodent-eating birds, about 600 species, from their 
human enemy at all times. The new law is so comprehensive and 
adequate that the extinction Vhich threatened every wild bird in 
the United States is now averted and the birds that remain have 
a good chance of substantial increase. 

Nevertheless, the battle to save the birds is yet to be won. For 
the fate of the birds depends upon the general enforcement of the 
new law. And the enforcement of every law depends upon public 
opinion. The new law being revolutionary in its character and 
from its nature difficult .of enforcement, needs the loyal support 
of all good citizens. 

Federation women everywhere should watch the local situation 
as to the enforcement of the law. Sportsmen should be urged to 
show good sportsmanship. The market hunter and the pot hunter 
should be suppressed. The legislature of the state should be called 
upon to make the state game laws conform with the regulations of 
the new federal statute. 

The United States Department of Agriculture invites the co- 
operation of bird lovers in compiling a census of all the birds in 
the United States, to be begun in May and finished by the end of 
June. For particulars address the Biological Survey, Department 
of Agriculture, "Washington, D. C. 

The protection of wild animal life is another phase of con- 



44 NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 

servation that should receive educational and legislative attention. 
A live beaver or deer or mountain sheep is of more value to us than 
a dead one. Protected by reasonable laws supported by public opin- 
ion, most forms of wild animal life will increase. Most of them 
are now threatened with extinction. See that the laws of your 
state give this wild life a chance to survive. 

BIRD STUDY 

The importance and value of birds in the economy of nature 
should be taught all children. Interest them by feeding the birds, 
and giving them water, especially in winter. Build bird houses and 
learn about the different species of birds in your locality. Organize 
bird classes and clubs for the children and they will quickly develop 
a keen interest and eagerly work to protect the birds from their 
many enemies. This teaching should have a place in every school. 

Valuable assistance is now being given in this work by the 
National Association of Audubon Societies. It issues a leaflet to 
"teachers and others who are interested in giving instructions to 
children on the subject of birds and their usefulness." Directions 
are given for class organization, and how to obtain for each mem- 
ber a set of ten colored pictures, together with the outline drawings 
and descriptive leaflets. Write to Mr. T. Gilbert Pearson, Secre- 
tary of the National Audubon Societies, 1974 Broadway, New York, 
N. Y., for this leaflet of information and begin at once. Your chil- 
dren, as well as the birds, will be benefited by this study of the 
birds. The children must obey the new Federal Migratory Bird 
Law and they might better obey it intelligently and willingly. 

Within the last few years several bird sanctuaries have been 
created. Many more are needed. Every state should have at least 
one of these harbors of safety for migratory birds. 

WOMEN, BIRDS AND MILLINERY 

With the women rests the responsibility of the killing of birds 
for millinery purposes. The sale of aigrettes is now prohibited by 
law in the United States. This is a great step in advance, but 
we need to go still farther. Women should not wear the feathers of 
any birds. There are plenty of ways to adorn a hat without killing 
a bird for its feathers. It is a well-known saying that "The two 
worst enemies of the birds are women and cats. ' ' The single excep- 
tion to make in the use of feathers is the ostrich feather. There 
is no loss of life or even cruelty in connection with the production 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 45 

of these feathers and everyone recognizes them at sight. All other 
feathers are open to suspicion. They may be only chicken feathers, 
or they may be feathers of birds that have been killed for the pur- 
pose. Only an expert can tell. 

Let the women of the General Federation set the example and, 
with the exception of ostrich, refuse to wear feathers of any kind. 

We are teaching our children to care for and protect the birds 
— all birds; we are working for the enforcement of the Federal 
Migratory Bird Law, and if we continue to adorn our hats with 
these very birds^ we are certainly absurdly inconsistent. 

PROGRAM 

Value and Protection of Birds — 
Esthetic value. 
Economic value. 

Educational stimulus of bird study. 
Bird plumage, its wearing condemned. 
Effect of the new Federal Migratory Bird Law. 

Educational Information Concerning Birds — 
Insectivorous birds. 
Migratory birds. 
Bird reservations. 

How can your state laws for the protection of wild birds and 
game life be improved. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bird and Wild Animal Life 

Bird Lore^ — A Magazine — D. Appleton & Co., New York. 

How to Attract the Birds — Neltje Blanchan — Doubleday, Page 
&Co. 

First Book of Birds — Olive Thome Miller. 

Hand Book op Birds op Eastern North America — Frank W. 
Chapman. 

Wild Things— If. K. Jo6— Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 

Bird Guide, East op the Rockies — C. A. Reed — Doubleday, Page 
& Co. 

Western Bird Guide — C. A. Reed — Doubleday, Page & Co. 

Some Common Birds in Their Eelation to Agriculture (Farm- 
ers' Bulletin 54), National Reservation for the Protection 



46 NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 

OF Wild -Life (Biological Survey Circular No. 87), Bird 
Houses and How to Build Them (Farmers' Bulletin 609), 
and many other bulletins of useful information may be had 
from the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Address, Secretary 
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

In Beavek World — Enos A. Mills — Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 

Wild Animals I Have Known — Ernest Thompson Seton — Scrib- 
ner's. 

Wild Animals at Home — Ernest Thompson Seton — Doubleday, 
Page & Co. 

The Kindred op the Wild — Chas. G. D. Roberts — L. C. Page & Co. 

Wilderness Ways — Rev. W. J. Long — Ginn & Co. 

Bird and Wild Animal Life — Dr. Wm. T. Hornqday. 

Vanishing Wild Life — Dr. Wm. T. Hornaday. 

American Natural History^ — Dr. Wm. T. Hornaday. 

Wild Life Conservation in Theory and Practice^ — Dr. Wm. T. 
Hornaday. 
(Note: Mrs. Philip B. Stewart, 1228 Wood Ave., Colorado 

Springs, Colorado, is the Chairman of the Bird Committee and will 

direct the work of this division. Write to her for information.) 

list of national bird reservations to march 4, 1913 

Arranged Alphabetically 

Aleutian Islands, Alaska. East Park, Cal. 

Belle Fourche, S. D. East Timbalier, La. 

Bering Sea, Alaska. Farallon, Cal. 

Bogoslof, Alaska. Flattery Rocks, Wash. 

Breton Island, La. Forrester Island, Alaska. 

Bumping Lake, Wash. Gravel Island, Wis. 

Carlsbad, N. M. ' Green Bay, Wis. 

Chamisso Island, Alaska. Hawaiian Islands, Hawaii. 

Chase Lake, N. D. Hazy Islands, Alaska. 

Clealum, Wash. Huron Islands. Mich. 

Clear Lake, Cal. Indian Key, Fla. 

Cold Springs, Ore. Island Bay, Fla. 

Conconully, Wash. Kachess, Wash. 

Copalis Rock, Wash. Keechelus, Wash. 

Culebra, P. R. Key West, Fla. 

Deer Flat, Idaho. Klamath Lake, Ore. 

Desecheo Island, P. R. Loch-Katrine, Wyo. 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 47 

Malheur Lake, Ore. St. Lazaria, Alaska. 

Matlaeha Pass, Fla. Salt River, Ariz. 

Minidoka, Idaho. Shell Keys, La. 

Mosquito Inlet, Fla. Shoshone, Wyo. 

Niobrara, Neb. Siskisit, Mich. 

Palma Sola, Fla. Strawberry Valley, Utah. 

Passage Key, Fla. Stump Lake, N. D. 

Pathfinder, Wyo. Tern Island, La. 

Pelican Island, Fla. Three Arch Rocks, Ore. 

Pine Island, Fla. Tortugas Keys, Fla. 

Piskun, Mont. Tuxedni, Alaska. 

Pribilof, Alaska. Willow Creek, Mont. 

Quillayute Needles, Wash, Yukon Delta, Alaska. 
Rio Grande, N. M. 

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF AUDUBON SOCIETIES 

Special Leaflet No. 22 (8th Edition— Year 1918-1919) 

An Announcement to Teachers 

The National Association of Audubon Societies is able to make 
the following offer of assistance for the present school year (1918- 
1919), to those teachers and others in the United States and Canada 
who are interested in giving instruction to children on the subject 
of birds and their usefulness : 

JUNIOR AUDUBON CLASSES 

To form a Junior Audubon Class for bird-study, a teacher 
should explain to the pupils of her grade (and others if desired) 
that their object will be to learn all they can about the wild birds, 
and that everyone who becomes a member will be expected to be 
kind to the birds and protect them. Every member will be re- 
quired to pay a fee of ten cents. When FIFTEEN or MORE have 
paid their fees, the teacher will send their money to the National 
Association of Audubon Societies and give the name of the Audubon 
Class and her own name and address. CHILDREN MUST NOT 
SEND IN FEES INDIVIDUALLY. The Association will then 
forward to the teacher (or person organizing the class) for each 
member whose fee has been paid the beautiful Audubon Button, 
and a set of eight colored pictures of common birds, together with 
accompanying Educational Leaflets containing accounts of the 
habits of the birds and an outline drawing of the pictures for color 



48 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 



work. Each child also receives one of the "Audubon Cases/' 
giving pictures in colors of more than sixty birds. 

(Special Note : Every teacher who forms a class of fifteen or 
more receives a free subscription to the magazine, "Bird-Lore," 
which contains many valuable suggestions for teachers. This does 
not mean that we give "Bird-Lore" for EVERY FIFTEEN 

pupil's, but for every class of not less than 
fifteen pupils. only one subscription is given 
no matter what the size of the class, fifteen 

BEING THE MINIMUM. It is expected that the teacher will give 
at least one lesson a month on the subject of birds, for which pur- 
pose she will find the leaflets of great value as a basis for the lessons. 
When extra leaflets are wanted they must be ordered by mark- 
ing the Blue Price List, dated and signed at the bottom. These 




leaflets are three cents each. Communications regarding change of 
address, etc., should be sent to 1974 Broadway, New York City.) 



BY-LAWS FOR AUDUBON CLASS 

If the teacher wishes, the Audubon Class may have a regular 
organization, and a pupil may preside upon the occasions when the 
class is discussing a lesson. For this purpose the following set of 
by-laws is suggested : 

Article I. This organization shall be known as the " 

, Junior Audubon Class." 

Article II. The objects of its members shall be to learn all 
they can about tlie wild birds, and to try to save any from being 
wantonly killed. ♦■ 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 49 

Article III. The officers shall consist of a President, Secretary 
and Treasurer. 

Article IV. The annual fees of the Class shall consist of 10 
cents for each member ; and the money shall be sent to the National 
Association of Audubon Societies in exchange for Educational 
Leaflets and Audubon Buttons. 

Article V. The Junior Audubon Class shall have at least one 
meeting every month. 

Although most of these Classes have been and will probably 
continue to be formed among pupils in schools, anyone may form a 
Class of children anywhere, and receive the privileges offered. 

SUBJECTS TO STUDY 

Besides the study of the particular birds in the leaflets, the 
following subjects may be studied with profit: 

Birds' Nests — In the fall, after all the birds have left their 
nests, the nests may be collected and brought to the school-room. 
Study them and learn that the Chipping Sparrow's nest is made of 
fine rootlets, grasses, and is lined with horsehair ; examine the mud 
cup of the robin's nest, the soft lining of the Shrike's nest, etc. 

Feeding Birds — In winter arrange "bird-tables" in the trees 
and by the windows, and place crumbs and seeds on them ; in sum- 
mer put out bathing and drinking pans, note what birds come to 
them and how frequently, and report what you observe to the 
Class. 

Nesting-Boxes — In early spring put up nesting-boxes for Blue- 
birds, Wrens, Chickadees, Nuthatches, Martins and other birds. 
The leaflets sent will be found to contain many suggestions about 
bird-feeding and nesting-boxes, and the proper way to make and 
place the latter. 

Coloring Outlines — The ehildreu, using crayons or water-color 
paint, may place the natural colors of the birds upon the outline 
drawings provided, using the colored plates for comparison. This 
is one of the best ways to fasten in the memory the appearance of 
the birds, and so learn to recognize them quickly in the field. 
Many teachers have utilized this feature as an exercise for the 
regular drawing-hour. 

(Form for reporting the organization of a Junior Audubon Class.) 
T. Gilbert Pearson, Secretary, 



50 NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 

National Association of Audubon Societies, 
1974 Broaclv^^ay, New York, N. Y. 

Dear Sir: 

"With this I enclose $--. in payment of the fees of 

members of the ,... Junior Audubon Class, which was 

formed at - - , State of , on 

..191 

You may send Audubon Buttons, Leaflets and '' Bird-Lore" 
to the following address : 

Teacher. 

P. 0. Address - -- 

Express Office - 

(Yes. 
Have you previoiisly formed a class under this plan ? ^No. 

(When? 

[Note: No foreign postage stamps, no foreign money, and 
no checks under $2.00 (unless accompanied by exchange) will bo 
accepted.] 

NOTICE 

The following material will be issued. Each child who pays 
the fee of ten 'cents will be entitled to a selection of EIGHT SUB- 
JECTS from the 20 listed below AND ONE of the four Audubon 
Cases. If any of the leaflets or Cases become exhausted we reserve 
the right to substitute for any of the material selected. The teacher 
may also receive a set for ten cents : 

1. Audubon Button, showing a Robin in colors. 

2. Pictures, leaflets and outline drawings of EIGHT SUB- 
JECTS from following list: Bald Eagle, Flisker, Cardinal, 
Meadowlark, English Sparrow, Scarlet Tanager, Purple Martin, 
Chipping Sparrow, Kingbird, Redstart, Bobolink, Barn Swallow, 
Cedar Waxwing, Towhee, Junco, Nighthawk, White-throated Spar- 
row, Downy Woodpecker, Snowy Egret and Phoebe. 

3. ONE of the following Audubon Pocket Bird Collections : 
Case No. 1, "Permanent Resident and Winter Visitant Land Birds 
of the Northeastern States. ' ' Case No. 2, ' ' Permanent Resident and 
Winter Visitant Land Birds of the Southeastern States." Case 
No. 3, "Early Spring Migrant Land Birds of the Eastern States." 
Case No. 4, "Common Winter Land Birds of the Western States." 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 51 

Other leaflets may be purchased from our blue price list at 
three cents each when five or more are ordered at one time. Audu- 
bon Collection Cases not ordered with the regular Junior set are 
sold at ten cents a copy. A complete list of the leaflets will be given 
on request. 

ENDORSEMENT BY THE UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OP EDUCATION 

' ' I consider the work of the Junior Audubon Classes very im- 
portant for both educational and economic results; and I congratu- 
late you upon the opportunity of extending it. The bird-clause in 
the Mosaic Law ends with the words, 'That it may be well with 
thee, and that thou mayest prolong thy days.' The principle still 
holds. I hope that through your efforts the American people may 
soon be better informed in regard to our wild birds and their 
value. 

Yours very truly, 

P. P. Claxton, 
Commissioner. ' ' 
Washington, September 19, 1912. 

books AND SUPPLIES 

Teachers will find the following publications very helpful : 

''Audubon Bird Charts." Nos. 1, 2 and 3. $1.50 each. These 
wall charts are sold separately. Illustrated descriptive circular 
sent on request. 

"The Bird Study Book." By T. Gilbert Pearson. Postpaid, 
$1.35. This new illustrated book "tells the things people want to 
know about birds. ' ' 

"Stories of Bird Life." By T. Gilbert Pearson. Postpaid, 70 
cents. Interesting experiences with wild birds told in story form. 

"Tales from Birdland." By T. Gilbert Pearson. Postpaid, 
70 cents. A new nature book by Mr. Pearson who knows how to tell 
a story in a way to captivate children. This book has been adopted 
as a supplementary reader in the New York City schools. 

"Primer of Bird-Study." By Ernest Ingersoll. Price, 18 
cents, $1.50 a dozen. A simple account of the structure, adapta- 
tions and functions of birds. 

Eeed's Bird Guides. Cloth, $1.00; leather, $1.25. "Eastern 
Land Birds," "Eastern Water Birds," "Western Water Birds," 
"Butterflies," etc. 

Bulletin No. 1 "Attracting Birds About the Home." Post- 
paid, 15 cents. Illustrated articles containing designs for bird- 
houses, bird-tables, etc. 



52 NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 

"Field Observation Book." Postpaid, 15 cents. Containing 
suggestions and blanks for recording notes on birds in the field. 
Pocket size, flexible. 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 



53 




MEADOWLARK 
Order— Passeres Family — ^Icterid^ 

Genus— Sturnella Species — Magna magna 

National Association of Audubon Societies 



54 NATURE STtfDY AND SCIENCE 

THE MEADOWLARK 

By T. Gilbert Pearson 

THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF AUDUBON SOCIETIES 

Educational Leaflet No. 3 

Uncle Pauldo was old^ and black, and extremely lazy, but he 
was most entertaining to a certain boy of nine years who learned 
from him many things about birds and animals and "varmints." 
One day the boy went to the cotton-field with a message and met 
Uncle Pauldo at the big dead pine where he had just come for 
water. As he lifted the water-gourd to his lips, a Meadowlark sang 
cheerily from the fence a few rods away. 

UNCLE PAULDO 'S VERSION 

"There now," exclaimed the old man, "do you know what 
de or Fiel' Lark is . hollerin ' ? You don't? Well, when he sing 
dat bird is sayin' 'Laziness will kill you.' " 

Perhaps Uncle Pauldo spoke truthfully — I cannot say; but I 
do know that all through the years since that day whenever the boy 
has heard a Meadowlark sending its clear song ringing across the 
fields, to his ears those are the words it seems to say. 

Of all the twelve hundred kinds of birds found in North Amer- 
ica there are comparatively few whose notes people commonly 
translate into words. Who, for example, ever heard of a writer 
trying to state in English language what a Wren says in Wren 
language, or who will tell us in plain words what a Red-headed 
Woodpecker is talking about when he shouts to his mate from the 
old dead limb? 

Among those birds, however, that are popularly supposed to 
say things one can understand is the Meadowlark, but, as usual, in 
similar cases all hearers do not agree as to what is the proper trans- 
lation. Some New England people entertain the idea that the 
bird sings ' ' Spring o ' the Y-e-a-r ! ' ' While there are those in New 
Jersey to whose ear the song sounds like this: "I see y-o-u-u-u! 
You ca-a-a-n't see me-e-e-e!" 

QUALITY OP THE SONG 

Let it be borne in mind that this bird's song has a distinct 
quality about it that at once sets it off from the songs of any other 
denizen of the countryside. This much may be said, of it for a 
certainty, that once heard distinctly it is not probable that one will 
fail to recall its author the next time its chime4ike whistle comes 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 55 

down on the wind. A young bird-student may at times be puzzled 
to distinguish between the song of the Eed-eyed Vireo and that of 
the Robin, or may become confused in endeavoring to tell which of 
the Warblers is singing in the tree-tops near by, but to hear the 
Meadowlark at his best is to listen to a song that will ever after- 
ward be known to him. 

Like all singing birds, so far as my knowledge extends, the 
musical performances of this inhabitant of the open country begin 
with the day. At intervals until night the whistling melody con- 
tinues. There is noticeable variation in the quality of the singing 
of different birds. Not all men can sing with the same degree of 
melody, nor can all Meadowlarks. 

These ]Dirds are found from the southern prairie Provinces of 
Canada southward throughout the United States and into Mexico. 
They are more numerous, of course, in some regions than in others, 
but wherever found they are much in evidence, and are always 
known by the dwellers of the country round about. Few people 
can pass this yellow-breasted, black-bibbed, loud-singing musician 
without noticing its presence. 

INCREASE IN NUMBERS 

The Meadowlark is one of the species of birds that has in- 
creased in numbers since the coming of the white man to America. 
Vast areas of our country, particularly in the Eastern and Southern 
States, were originally covered with heavy forests. The Meadow- 
lark being a bird of open lands, was therefore restricted to the 
comparatively few prairies that then existed. These conditions 
began to change as soon as the settlers commenced felling the 
forest trees, and as fields and meadows appeared Meadowlarks 
began to increase. 

If you want to find a Meadowlark 's nest, you must look for it 
on the ground. It is usually made entirely of dead grasses, although 
at times a thin lining of horsehair is added. Most of the nests I 
have examined possessed a dome-shaped roof of grass, thus allow- 
ing inspection from one side only. This snug little house is hid 
under the edge of a clump of grass or weeds. Sometimes one finds 
it in a field of corn, or concealed by a stump around which grass is 
growing, or elsewhere protected by an overhanging grassy clod 
left unbroken at the spring plowii^ig. 

HOME WEIAj HIDDEN 

It is something of an adventure to find one of these stationary 
cradles built for the comfort of the wee Larks to come. tJsually 



56 NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 

it is discovered quite by accident as one pursues his way across a 
meadow or field. So closely do the colors of the feathers on the 
head and back of the bird resemble its surroundings that if it could 
restrain its fear one might pass within a foot of the spot with 
small chance of discovering the secret. The bird seems to be 
conscious of this fact, and often will permit one almost to step on 
it before fluttering away. One day, after a forenoon spent in a 
marsh with two other bird-lovers, we came out on the dry meadow- 
land for lunch. After spending half an hour lunching and loung- 
ing on the ground we rose to go, when suddenly up flew a Meadow- 
lark from her nest with its five speckled eggs not over twelve feet 
from where our lunch had been spread. There she had been sitting 
all that time, and probably would not have moved when she did 
had I not stepped within a foot of her hiding-place. 

It is a very discouraging task to attempt to find a Meadow- 
lark's nest by watching the birds go to it, for the reason that when 
one of them wishes to approach the spot, it alights on the ground 
many yards away and walks quietly through the grass to its destin- 
ation. Ordinarily it leaves its home in the same careful manner. 
Certain well-defined paths of travel may often be noted radiating 
from the nest. 

There is a great difference in the length of time that the young 
of various birds stay in the nest. Baby Ducks, Quails, Killdeers, 
and Pheasants, as examples, can run about within a few hours 
after being hatched. It seems that about all one of these little 
fellows needs to do before starting in the race of life is to wait until 
his coat has dried and his small brothers and sisters have kicked 
themselves free from their shells. The nest is useful as long as he 
is an egg, but when he becomes a bird he must up and away a' 
once. 

But how different all this is with a tiny Meadowlark, who 
comes into the world weak and helpless ! Close to two weeks ' time 
must pass before it is strong enough to follow its mother out among 
the waving grass-clumps and the towering weeds. 

Late in the- summer the birds assemble and in more or less 
straggling companies go foraging about over the fields. Sometimes 
one may find only half a dozen together, but in crossing meadows 
I have at times seen fifty or a hundred at a time. They do not fly 
in compact flocks like Blackbirds, nor do all the members of a 
company spring into the air at once as is the custom with Quails. 



NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 57 

Their flight is leisurely and rather slow, which renders them an 
easy mark for the amateur gunner. 

NOT A GAME-BIRD 

In many states Meadowlarks are protected by law, but over 
considerable areas of the southern part of our country the birds 
are still persistently shot for sport and for the small morsel of 
flesh to be found on their bodies. How can anyone enjoy shooting 
the life out of one of these beautiful guardians of the meadow? 
Think how devoid of all the finer feelings a man or boy must be 
who can experience a thrill of pleasure in seeing a song-bird fall 
torn and bleeding to the earth. I refuse to believe that of all 
the hundreds of thousands of Junior members of the Audubon 
Society in this country today there is one who, when he becomes 
a man, will shoot a Meadowlark. 

Quite aside from the beauty of its song and of its plumage, this 
bird, by eating insects and weed seeds, is helping every farmer and 
gardner to raise his crops. Meadowlarks do extremely little dam- 
age to fruit or grain, and in many parts of the country they are 
never accused of doing any harm whatever. Now and then some 
of them get a few grains of corn or wheat, but they pay for this a 
thousand fold by the good services they render to the man who is 
trying to raise the corn or wheat. 

WESTERN MEADOWLARK 

Out on the plains of the far West, and along the Pacific 
Coast, there is found the Western Meadowlark. In appearance it 
closely resembles the eastern bird of the same name, but it is a far 
more famous singer. At times it appears to possess the wonderful 
powers of the ventriloquist. I remember one morning in north- 
eastern California when I vainly sought to see one of these birds, 
that sounded as though its song might be coming from some stake 
along a fence two hundred feet away. With my field-glass I swept 
the fence from right to left and back again. Over and over I did 
this, searching for the splendid musician whose song sounded again 
and again in the clear air; and then by accident I discovered the 
bird standing on a bush not twenty feet from me. These Western 
Meadowlarks often come into towns, and there make themselves 
quite at home. The first one I ever heard singing, indeed, was in 
a city, the city of San Diego, California. For ten minutes I bark- 
ened to its song as it stood on a telephone-pole, and all the while 
hundreds of people were passing. 



58 NATURE STUDY AND SCIENCE 



CLASSIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION 



The Meadowlark belongs to the Order Passeres, Suborder 
Oscines and Family Icteridae. Its scientific name is Sturnella 
magna magna. Three geographical races are recognized in the 
United States, in addition to the eastern bird : Rio Grande Meadow- 
lark {Sturnella Jioope'si) ; Southern Meadowlark {Sturnella m. 
argutula) ; and Western Meadowlark {Sturnella m. neglecta). The 
Meadowlark breeds throughout the United States, in southern 
Ontario, and northwestward to the Saskatchewan Valley; and it 
winters wherever cold and snowfall are not severe. 

(Note: This and other Educational Leaflets are for sale, at 
2 cents each, by the National Association of Audubon . Societies, 
1974 Broadway, New York City. Lists given on request.) 



PRELIMINARY OUTLINE FOR TWO-YEAR COURSE IN 
AGRICULTURE FOR RURAL SCHOOLS 

FIRST YEAR 
First Period 

CROPS 

1. What are the chief crops in the neighborhood? 

Note : This can be brought out by consulting all the children 
in the class. It is sufficient to know that wheat, oats, barley, sugar 
beets, potatoes, corn, melons, apples, etc., be used to designate the 
different kinds of crops. After it has been definitely worked out 
what crops are chiefly grown in the community, the question 
should be asked: 

"Which crops are the best money makers for the com- 
munity ? Next, 
What is the history of some of these crops? 
A portion of the time devoted to geography, to history and 
to reading might well be applied in working out this phase of the 
subject. A type example may be used to illustrate the method. 
For example, take corn. 

2. Where did corn originate ? On what continent ? In what 

country ? 
What varieties of corn are grown in the neighborhood? 
(If possible find out the history and origin of these 

varieties.) 
How important is corn as a crop in the country as a 

whole ? 
What is corn used for? Human food, stock food, starch, 

corn oil, other 'products. 
How is corn grown? 
How is the land prepared for it? 
Is it planted in rows and cultivated? 
Why is it so planted? 
How should the seed be cared for? 
How deep should it be planted? 
What time should it be planted? 
How should it be cultivated? 

What machines are used for planting and cultivating? 
How is it harvested? 



60 AGRICULTURE 

What becomes of it after it is harvested? 

Trace the handling of corn put lip for silage; corn cut 
and shocked for dry fodder; corn harvested for the 
grain alone. 

How is the grain stored T 

Which is the better method? 

Trace the handling of corn for grain from the field to 
the corn crib, through the farm storage bin to the 
elevator. Show where it is shipped and how; show 
how it is handled on the market. Trace it to the feed 
lot and to the corn products manufacturers. 

When should the seed be gathered? 

How is corn improvement brought about by seed selec- 
tionT 

How is seed tested for germination? 

Actually conduct germination tests. 

3. In a similar way take up the study of small grains or some 
one of the small grains. 

Make a study of the enemies which affect these crops. 
These enemies are both plant and animal. Some of 
them may be controlled. 

Show how such diseases as smut in the small grains may 
be controlled by treating the seed. 

Have actual demonstrations of methods in the school 
room. 

Study some of the insect enemies that affect these crops, 
and show how they may be controlled. 

Make similar studies on some one or more of the small 
grains to those outlined under the type example of 
corn. 

Carry the crop from its origin, giving methods of seed 
selection and improvement, treatment of seed, depth 
to plant, method of planting, machinery used in pre- 
paring the seed bed, planting, harvesting and thresh- 
ing after harvest. How to shock, stack, etc. 

Follow the crop from the bins on the farm after thresh- 
ing clear through the elevator, over the transporta- 
tion systems, through the terminal markets, through 
the manufacturing processes until it reaches the per- 



AGRICULTURE 61 

sons who consume the crop or the manufactured 
products from the crop. 

WEEDS 

4. What weeds grow in the community? 

What is a weed? 

Why do weeds reduce yields? 

How do you kill weeds? 

How are weeds which grow in the community propa- 
gated, by seeds or underground roots? 

What are the easiest ways to keep weeds down? 
Note: Rotation of crops, cultivated crops alternating with 
uncultivated crops, proper plowing, at what time, etc. 

How do weeds scatter their seeds? 
Note : Wind, irrigation water, birds, other animals, etc. 

Second Period 

ANIMALS 

1. What kind of animals are kept in the neighborhood? 
Why are horses kept? Mules? Hogs? Sheep? Beef 

cattle? Dairy cattle? Poultry? 
What breeds of horses ? 

Where did these breeds originate and ho*w? 
How and when did they come to this country? 
Which are the better breeds for the neighborhood ? 
Note : Much of the study in answering these questions could 
be taken up in connection with history and geography. 

2. What kinds of cattle are grown in the neighborhood? 
What is the difference between beef cattle and dairy 

cattle? 

Which is the best breed of beef cattle for the neighbor- 
hood? 

Why? 

Where did the breed originate? 

Who originated it? 

What do the animals eat? 

How should they be fed for best results for the neighbor- 
hood? 
Note: Follow the history of one of the dairy breeds as it 
has been done for the beef breed. 

3. Make milk tests for butter fat. 

Note : If possible get tests from different cows to bring out 



62 AGRICULTURE 

the idea of different value of different individual animals. It 
might be possible to organize the testing work so that the school 
could make tests for butter fat with a Babcock Tester for the 
cows of the neighborhood. 

4. "What birds are common to the community? 

Which of these are beneficial? (That is, which of these 

eat insects that injure crops?) 
Which of these birds are injurious? (That is, which of 
these eat crops without being helpful by eating in- 
sects which injure the crops?) 

SECOND YEAR 
First Period 

SOILS 

1. What is soil? 

Note : Collect samples of the different kinds of soils in the 
neighborhood. 

How did these soils originate? 

What is soil good for? (Note: Grow plants.) 

What kinds of soil plow easily ? 

What kinds plow with difficulty ? 
Note : These questions should develop the idea of light and 
heavy soils. 

Why do some soils produce good crops and some poor? 

Why is deep mellow soil more productive than shallow 
soil? 

Why do crops do better under system of alternate crop- 
ping or rotation than they do under continuous crop- 
ping ? 

What is meant by seed bed? 

What are the processes and machinery used in preparing 
seed beds? 

Develop information on the movement of soil water. 

How does cultivation save water? 

How do weeds waste water? 

Where does all the water come from that is found in 
ordinary soils? 

How much water is needed to grow crops ? 

How much precipitation in the form of rain or snow does 
it take to make the water necessary to produce vari- 
ous sized crops? 



AGRICULTURE 63 

What happens when there is too much water? 

How is excess water removed by drainage? 

What happens to crops where there is too little water ? 

How do they supply water by irrigation to make up defi- 
ciencies in the rainfall? 

When is the land plowed in the neighborhood for different 
crops ? 

Is it plowed at the best time? 

Second Period 

FARM ACCOUNTS 

1. Farming is a business. To know what the business is 

doing it is necessary to keep accounts. Any record 
kept of the business is an account. The best records 
are those which are simplest, as they are more easily 
understood, and if complete enough tell the whole 
history of the business, 

2. The basis of any farm account is the inventory. 

Teach how to take an inventory at the beginning and at 
the end of the year. 

Have each pupil make an inventory of some special phase of 
farming business, if possible, taken from the farm from which he 
comes. One student could take the inventory of the machinery 
and make it complete ; another might take an inventory of live- 
stock ; another might take an inventory of the grain or crops. On 
some of the smaller and simpler farms students might take a 
complete inventory of the whole farm. The inventory should be 
classified into land and what goes with it. That is, land and per- 
manent buildings and other permanent improvements under the 
heading of ' ' real estate. ' ' There should be classes in the inventory 
for machinery, for livestock such as horses, beef cattle, hogs, dairy 
cattle, poultry, crops, small tools, etc. 

After experience with actually making an inventory the use 
of the inventory should be told. 

OTHER RECORDS 

An account should be kept with some of the individual enter- 
prises of the farm. For example, assign some pupils to keep an 
account of dairy cows; others of chickens; others of hogs. Some 
might be assigned, at the proper season, to keep a record of a 
particular field or a particular crop. This record should show the 



64 AGRICULTURE 

work done and when and its value; the expense incurred and the 
receipts accruing. 

An account might be kept of parts of an enterprise. For 
instance, a complete record by one boy or girl of the plowing in a 
certain field ; another might make a complete record of the plant- 
ing; another of the harrowing or preparation of the seed bed 
between the plowing and planting. 

These are simply suggestions as to possibilities in record 
keeping. 

Records should be kept neatly and checked over. No record 
should be kept for which a use cannot be definitely shown. 

Assistance might be rendered boys and girls for summer work 
such as garden club work, pig club work, feeding and care of 
poultry. 

Some time might be expended in teaching children how to 
prepare and put on exhibits. As a development of this idea and 
to close it out small school fairs might be held and merits award- 
ed. Properly designed ribbons or cards will serve as rewards of 
merit practically as well as prizes and will be valued by the boys 
and girls if the proper spirit is developed more than money or 
good prizes. 

It is quite likely that at least in the second year the boys' and 
girls' work could and probably should diverge some, the girls 
taking up lines of domestic science or home arts and the boys 
continuing the agriculture. 



SCHOOL GARDENS 



65 



FOLLOW THE PIED. PIPER 

Join the United States 
School Garden -Army. : 




SUGGESTIONS FOR GARDEN WORK IN THE PUBLIC 

SCHOOLS 

The war by making food scarce has forced us to economize. 
At present a large part of the world population is not only not 
supporting itself but is actually dependent. This condition prom- 
ises to continue for some time. It will take years after the war 
closes for Europe to approximate feeding herself as nearly as she 
did before this world tragedy. Money in the pocket will not put 
food in the stomach if the food does not exist. This deficiency 
must in large measure be made up in the United States. The de- 
mand is insistent and increasing, while at the same time the army 
and the factory are calling vast numbers of our men and boys 
from the farm and food-producing industries. 

To meet the urgent need the children of the United States 
are asked to become gardeners and to make use of the back yards, 
vacant lots, and unused corners, as never before. Fortunately 
several organizations like the School Garden Ass'n of America, 
located at New York, and the Children's Flower Mission of 
Cleveland, and the Boys' and Girls' Club Movement, have 
prepared the way. And now the U. S. Bureau of Education, 
through the United States School Garden Army, has given nation- 
al recognition to the work and will assist in the big American 
way. America has never been inattentive to the cry of the hun- 
gry. In the mighty effort to make food plentiful over all the 
earth she must do the major part, and the teacher and the pupil 
must do their share. 

Gardening is naturally closely related to Nature Study. In 
fact the garden furnished a very appropriate field for the prac- 
tical application of nature study instruction. The child gardener 
is compelled to observe soils, seeds, insects, weather, roots, winds, 
sunlight, shade, the growth and maturing of plants, effects of 
irrigation and methods of harvesting, curing and storage. The 
gardener is not only studying nature, but he aims to make nature 
his servant. In this effort the teacher can and should render 
great aid to the child. 

. It is impossible to arrange a course of study that will fit all 
conditions and needs. Colorado extends through four degrees of 
latitude and her homes are found in altitudes varying from four 
thousand to ten thousand feet. Her plains section, mountain val- 
leys, and mesas, present conditions so different and varying that 



SCHOOL GARDENS 67 

specific directions will be appropriate in but few cases. Hence 
what is given below will be quite general and the teacher will be 
expected to adapt the instruction to local needs. 

During the fall months such subjects as fall planting, the 
storage, drying and preserving of vegetables and fruits, saving 
seeds for future use, and preparation of the soil for next season's 
garden, will naturally occupy the attention. Fortunately the 
U. S. Department of Agriculture and our Colorado Agricultural 
College have prepared and will furnish free for the asking numer- 
ous valuable bulletins dealing with these subjects. Many other 
subjects of related interests have been discussed in bulletin form 
and teachers should avail themselves of these free libraries of 
valuable and reliable information. 

To assist those who do not have access to such sources a par- 
tial list is here given. If a U. S. publication is desired, write to 
the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. If a Colorado 
pamphlet is wanted, send to the Colorado Agricultural College 
at Ft. Collins. 

UNITED STxVTES PUBLICATIONS DEALING WITH VEGETABLE GROWING 

Asparagus Culture -.Farmers' Bulletin 61 

Human Food from Acre of Staple Farm 

Products --- - -Farmers' Bulletin 877 

Cucumbers Farmers' Bulletin 254 

Onion Culture — - Farmers' Bulletin 354 

Cabbage Farmers ' Bulletin 433 

The City and Suburban Vegetable Garden--Farmers' Bulletin 936 

The Small Vegetable Garden - —Farmers' Bulletin 818 

The Farm Garden in the North Farmers ' Bulletin 937 

Beans Farmers' Bulletin 289 

Tomatoes Farmers ' Bulletin 220 

The School Garden Farmers ' Bulletin 218 

Okra Farmers ' Bulletin 232 

HoAv to Grow an Acre of Corn ---— - Farmers' Bulletin 537 

COLORADO PUBLICATIONS 

Home Vegetable Garden Bulletin 241 

Vegetable Growing in Colorado Bulletin 199 

Potato Culture in Colorado *. Bulletin 243 

Some Colorado Mushrooms ..Bulletin 201 

Beans in Colorado and Their Diseases ..Bulletin 226 



68 SCHOOL GARDENS 

PUBLICATIONS DEALING WITH SMALL FRUITS 

United States Government 

Everlasting Strawberries - —.Farmers' Bulletin 901 

Home Fruit Garden - Farmers ' Bulletin 154 

Raspberry Culture --- Farmers ' Bulletin 887 

Colorado Agricultural College 
Small Fruits for Colorado - - Bulletin 195 

STORAGE, DRYING AND PRESERVING — FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 

United States Government 

Home Canning - Farmers' Bulletin 839 

Drying Fruits and Vegetables in the Home-Farmers' Bulletin 841 

Potato Storage and Storage Houses Farmers ' Bulletin 847 

Home Storage of Vegetables Farmers ' Bulletin 879 

Colorado Agricultural College 
Farm Storage of Apples and Potatoes Extension Bulletin 121 

PUBLICxiTlONS ON POULTRY 

United States Government 

Mites and Lice of Poultry Farmers' Bulletin 801 

Hints to Poultry Raisers - Farmers ' Bulletin 528 

Back Yard Poultry Keeping .., Farmers ' Bulletin 889 

Poultry House Construction - Farmers' Bulletin 574 

Poultry Management : Farmers ' Bulletin 28V 

Natural and Artificial Incubation of 

Hens' Eggs - Farmers' Bulletin 585 

Standard Varieties of Chickens Farmers' Bulletin 806 

Colorado Agricultural College 

Poultry Management — - Extension Bulletin 130 

The Poultry House Extension Bulletin 126 

Poultry Raising - - Bulletin 213 

SEEDS AND SEED TESTING 

United States Government Publications 

Seed Corn - Farmers' Bulletin 415 

Saving Vegetable Seeds for the Home and 

Market Garden Farmers ' Bulletin 884 

Home Production of Onion Seed and Sets.-Farmers' Bulletin 434 

The Rag Doll Seed Tester Farmers ' Bulletin 948 

Testing Farm Seeds in the Home and the 

Rural School - - - - Farmers ' Bulletin 42S 



SCHOOL GARDENS 69 

Colorado Agricultural College 
Cleaned, Treated and Tested Seed for Colorado.-.-. ..Bulletin 238 

BIRDS 

United States Oovernment Puhlications 

The English Sparrow as a Pest - Farmers' Bulletin 493 

Bird Houses and How to Build Them---- -Farmers' Bulletin 601> 

Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer--Farmers' Bulletin 630 

How to Attract Birds - - Farmers' Bulletin 760 

Fifty Common Birds of Farm and Orchard-Farmers ' Bulletin 513 

INSECTS 

United States Government Piihlications 

Apliids Injurious to Orchards Farmers ' Bulletin 804 

The Common Cabbage Worm.- Farmers' Bulletin 766 

How to Detect Outbreaks of Insects and 

Save Grain Crops Farmers' Bulletin 835 

House Ants and How to Control Them- Farmers ' Bulletin 740 

Grasshopper Control - Farmers' Bulletin 223 

Control of Diseases and Insect Enemies of 

the Home Vegetable Garden ..--—,- ---Farmers' Bulletin 856 

Colorado Agricultural College 

Insects and Insecticides -- Bulletin 210' 

Common Insects of the Garden Bulletin 199 

MISCELLANEOUS UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS 

How to Increase the Potato Crop by Spray- 
ing - Farmers' Bulletin 868 

Cabbage Diseases -- Farmers' Bulletin 925 

Organization of Boys' and Girls' Poultry 

Clubs Farmers' Bulletin 562 

The Peanut Farmers' Bulletin 431 

Weeds and How to Control Them Farmers' Bulletin 660 

Colorado Agricultural College 

Some Colorado Mushrooms - -.- --- Bulletin 201 

Hotbeds and Cold Frames ..Bulletin 221 

Reports and Plans of City Garden Clubs.. ..Extension Bulletin 133 

The above list is not complete, but it will give the teacher an 

introduction to much valuable information. Most of the Farmers' 

Bulletins are sent free on request, but in some cases a small charge 



70 SCHOOL GARDENS 

is made. It will be worth while to ask the Superintendent of 
Documents, Washington, D. C, to send you price lists of the gov- 
ernment publications. The Colorado Agricultural College will 
be glad to send lists of their publications. The National War 
Garden Commission, Maryland Bldg., Washington, D. C, have 
issued some most excellent bulletins, which they send on request. 
The Extension Department of the International Harvester 
Co., Harvester Bldg., Chicago, 111., publish a number of very fine 
bulletins strikingly and attractively illustrated. They send these 
for about the cost of postage. They will send you a price list on 
request. 

Many excellent books have been published. A few are named 
here : 

Principles of Vegetable Gardening, by Barley-MacMillen 
Co., Chicago. 

Vegetable Gardening, by Watts Orange Judd Co., Chicago. 

Productive Vegetable Growing, J. B. Lippincott & Co., Phil- 
adelphia. 

School and Home Gardens, by Meier, Ginn & Co., Chicago. 

Vegetable Gardening, by Green, Webb Publishing Co., Min- 
neapolis. 

Practical School and Home Gardens, by Hood, Long & Co., 
Lincoln, Neb. 

The months of September and October are favorable for the 
study of insect life. This is a subject in which children find keen 
pleasure. Unfortunately, too, the general public are woefully 
lacking in information on this line. 

In a general way the uninformed individual considers all in- 
sects injurious to his garden. Usually he has heard in a hazy 
way that the lady bird beetle is helpful in destroying other in- 
sects, but very few people recognize this beneficent little creature 
in its larva form, and so destroy it in its most useful stage. 

There are a number of other insects helpful because they 
feed on bugs, lice, eggs, etc., and so help protect the garden. 
Among these may be mentioned the beautiful golden-eyed, lace- 
wing fly, with its curious stilt-like eggs; the ichneumon fly, with 
its four-inch long ovipositor; the braconids that parasitize plant 
lice; the beautiful tiger beetles with their shiny metallic coats, 
and the dragon flies, sometimes called mosquito hawks, because 
they feed on those irritating pests. There are many others whose 
names and habits we ought to know. 

Butterflies are generally looked upon as harmless, but in 



SCHOOL G.\JIDENS 71 

the larva form many of our butterflies and moths are quite de- 
structive to vegetation. 'Ihe. cabbage butterfly, the eight-spotted 
forester whose larva feeds on the grapevine and the Virginia 
creeper, the tomato sphynx, the cut worm moth, the black swallow- 
tail whose curious larva feed on celery and related plants, and 
the leaf-roller moths, whose young are so destructive to the leaves 
of trees and shrubbery, are common examples. As soon as one 
begins to study, he is astonished at the number and variety of 
insect pests. 

Children are always interested in these life forms and it is 
regretable that more teachers and parents are not able to an- 
swer their questions concerning them. Ask the children to look 
in the large dictionary for the distinction between a bug and a 
beetle, and a moth and a butterfly. In the back part of Webster's 
International Dictionary, among the pictures, is an alphabetically 
arranged list of insects that teachers will find very helpful. The 
list of birds, animals, and fishes also found there, should have 
a better use than simply to amuse the pupils. The Century Dic- 
tionary is especially good for its pictures and descriptions of in- 
sect life. 

Children will take much pleasure in helping make a collec- 
tion of garden insects for the school and in observing and learning 
about the life histories of the insects found. In a large way the 
study of insects in Colorado is an unexplored country and there 
are many opportunities for the young naturalist to present new 
facts and unrecognized species to the scientific world. 

Small insects as bugs, beetles, flies, and the like, can be pre- 
served in small bottles filled with a weak solution of formalde- 
hyde. Two teaspoonfuls of this liquid in a teacup of water makes 
a good preserving fluid. The small clear glass vials such as physi- 
cians use are excellent for holding insects preserved in formal- 
dehyde. 

Butterflies, moths, and the larger insects may be killed with 
cyanide, benzine, or even gasolene, and then mounted for exhibit 
purposes. A mounting board can be easily and cheaply made. 
If the teacher has never seen such a board, perhaps some teacher 
in a nearby high school can show how to make one. 

The fall is a good time for the collection and study of seeds. 
A glass test tube filled with successive layers of different kinds 
of seeds makes a curiosity that children will like to look at. If 
different shapes and colors are placed adjacent' they will add to 
the odditv of the collection. A dozen varieties of beans make a 



72 SCHOOL GARDENS 

line showing when thus arranged. Corn, the various cereals, and 
the varieties of vegetable seeds, can be exhibited and studied in 
this way very nicely. 

Small clear glass bottles can be used for holding samples of 
soil, loam, sand, gravel, clay, adobe, and the like. The bottles 
when corked keep the samples looking fresh and are very con- 
venient for observation and study in class. If a microscopic ex- 
amination or the feel of the soil is desired, a small amount maj 
be taken from a bottle without disturbing the rest. 

If experiments with different kinds of soil are undertaken, 
larger amounts will be necessary. Books on agriculture suggest 
a number of interesting tests with soil that require the use of 
numerous bottles, lamp chimneys, tumblers, and the like. If one 
has the apparatus, he should use it by all means. But by molding 
the soil into the form of a bird's nest and carefully pouring into 
the nest a small quantity of water and noting whether the water 
soaks away quickly or slowly, much can be learned without the 
bottles and lamp chimneys. The child who has made mud pies 
Avill be quite enthusiastic about getting things ready for such 
an experiment. 

A very interesting 'test can be made by using two jars or 
crocks about five inches across and seven or eight inches deep. 
The jars should have the same shape and should weigh exactly 
alike. They should be filled with the same amount of soil by 
weight, and the soil packed closely. Into each pour the same 
amount of water by weight. Let them stand for a week or ten 
days,. leaving one untouched and stirring thoroughly about two 
inches of the top soil of the other every day. Now on the theory 
that cultivation prevents evaporation there should be consider- 
able difference in the weight of the jars. Put them on the scales 
and see how theory and fact compare. Many other experiments 
will suggest themselves if teacher and pupils enjoy such tests. 

In the early fall a garden exhibit held at the school is thor- 
oughly enjoyed by the pupils and has high educational value. 
This is a very effective way of establishing correct ideas and 
standards of prize-winning vegetables. Even if it is not con- 
venient to hold an exhibit, children may be asked to bring to 
school choice examples of the various types of garden produce. 
They will quickly learn what are the qualities which make an 
ear of corn a prize winner. They will observe that proper shape 
and smoothness are worth more in a potato than just size ana 
weight. They will soon note that there are different types of po- 



SCHOOL GARDENS 73 

t'atoes, a prize Early Ohio being obloug, a Peachblow more nearly 
round, while a Burbank should be about twice as long as it is 
wide. There are well recognized standards of excellence for car- 
rots, beets, cabbage, tomatoes, and the like, about which most of 
our teachers can easily inform themselves and be very helpful 
to their school and community by passing the information along. 

In the spring garden planning should begin early. In Febru- 
ary get catalogs of reliable seed houses and make lists of what 
you need. Plan your garden and decide how many feet of rows of 
each vegetable you are going to have. The numerous tables fur- 
nished in seed catalogs and garden books will then tell how much 
seed is needed. Fruit and shade trees may be trimmed in Febru- 
ary except the maple and early flowering shrubs. Seed testing 
should begin early. Teachers should know how to use a plate 
tester or a rag baby. Send for the bulletins on these subjects. 

The proper time of planting will vary with the latitude and 
the altitude. The dates suggested here are suited to Denver con- 
ditions. A difference of a hundred miles north or south, or a 
thousand feet in elevation will usually make a week's difference 
in the planting time. But the shelter or exposure afforded by 
mountain ranges has to be considered as well. 

The early part of March is a good time for indoor planting 
of cabbage, cauliflower, celery, and onions. The seed of asters, 
pansies, verbenas, giant cosmos, and the like, can be started in 
flats at this time. Sweet peas can be planted outside any time 
after the middle of the month. 

The earlier a garden is plowed or spaded after the soil is in 
condition to work, the better. But it should be raked thoroughly 
immediately after being turned over so as to break up the clods. 
This is entirely different from fall, plowing where the ground is 
left rough. 

In the latter part of March start indoors tomatoes, peppers, 
egg plants, and the like. Kemove mulching from beds and shrubs 
unless the season is unusually late. Late March is the right time 
to set hens if there is a place to take care of the little chicks in 
the stormy months of April and May. 

In April, as soon as the soil and season are favorable, sow out- 
side all the hardy vegetables and flowers. The following list is 
considered hardy : beets, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, carrots, cauli- 
flower, eeleriae, celery, cress, endive, kale, kohl-rabi. peas, pota- 
toes, radishes, salsify, spinach, and turnips. Usually the class- 
is printed on the seed packet. 



74 SCHOOL GARDENS 

If the season is early, cabbage, cauliflower and onions can 
be transplanted outside in the latter part of April. Trees and 
shrubbery can be set out now, but all such work should be com- 
pleted by early May. 

Tomatoes, egg plants, and other tender plants, can still be 
profitably started indoors for later outside planting. After the 
garden soil has been turned over it is a good plan to put out cut 
worm bait. When there is no other green food, the. cut worms 
will eat the bait ravenously. Root crops should not be put where 
similar crops were grown last season. Rotation of crops is bet- 
ter for the soil and helps to keep in check the root maggot. Set 
hens any time during April. Get eggs of a good strain. Poor 
stock eggs are not worth the bother. 

Tender vegetables should not be planted outside before the 
15th of May. The following list is considered tender : beans, 
corn, cucumbers, egg plants, melons, peppers, pumpkins, squash, 
sweet potatoes, and. tomatoes. If the season is at all backward, 
plants that have been started indoors do better if not set outside 
till near June 1st. 

A common rule among gardeners is to plant seed four times 
as deep as the seed is thick. Dahlias and other tubers and bulbs 
should be planted about the 10th of May. Dahlias should be 
planted about four inches deep with the tubers lying flat, not 
standing on end. 

Cultivation should begin just as soon or even before the 
plants appear. Weeds eat up moisture and plant food in the soil 
much more greedily than vegetables do. All soils have a tendency 
to form a crust on top. Proper tillage will replace this crust with 
a soil mulch and help retain moisture. A good motto is, "Use 
the hoe instead of the hose." 

Soak the soil thoroughly when irrigating. If the water tends 
to run off without sinking in, break up the crust and ridge the 
surface so that the water has to soak in. In moist soil plants root 
deeply and therefore stand drought better than when shallow 
rooted. 

In every community and neighborhood there are people who 
are skillful and experienced gardeners. Teachers should seek 
to become acquainted with such and get their advice and counsel. 
Oftentimes there are local conditions understood only by local 
people. 

The U. S. Bureau of Education has issued, through the U. S. 
S. G., a number of splendid leaflets on garden culture. They are 



SCHOOL GARDENS 



certainly worth asking for. There are many other sources of val- 
uable information available to the alert teacher, and in this time 
of the world's great need for food and still more food, every 
teacher should be alert. 



UNITED STATES SCHOOL GARDEN ARMY 

Department of the Interior, U. S. S. G. 

Bureau of Education, Washington 

General Leaflet No. 24 

SUGGESTIONS FOR GARDEN SOLDIERS 

1. Enlist now. , • 

2. Begin to plan your garden. 

3. Pick out your lot. 

4. Dump loads of leaves on it and plow or spade them under. 

5. Decide upon what seeds you will need and write to your 
Congressman for them. Do this soon. Tell him you are a soldier 
in the United States School Garden Army and are getting your 
plans all made to help Uncle Sam increase the food production of 
the world. By getting your seeds early you will have time to 
carefully test them. Northeastern States Leaflet No. 3 or Southern 
Leaflet No. 9 will tell you how to do this. 

6. Organize your company and when you find out who are the 
best garden workers and leaders, choose them for captains and 
lieutenants. 

7. Name your company. 

8. Write to a soldier you know or one you know about. 

9. Write a garden song or play. 

10. Make a four-minute garden speech to your class or to other 
class rooms in your building. 

11. Chrysanthemums in Washington are selling for one dollar 
each. Wonder if you could grow one hundred or more next winter 
that would sell for this much? 

12. Watch your potato pile, and if the potatoes show signs of 
rotting or sprouting, get more air to them. 

TO GARDEN TEACHERS, SUPERVISORS OR PRINCIPALS 

Please supply data requested on enclosed card. Thanks. We 
are enclosing herewith a copy of the Fall Manual. Additional 
copies may be had upon request. 



76 SCHOOL GARDENS 

THE FALL MANUAL OF THE UNITED STATES SCHOOL GARDEN 

ARMY 

Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Washington 
ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICIALS 

. Franklin K. Lane^ 
Secretary, Department of the Interior 

Philander P. Claxton, 
Commissioner, Bureau of Education 

John H. Francis, 
Director 

REGIONAL DIRECTORS 

Clarence M. Weed, 
Northeastern States 

Frederick A. Merrill, 
Southern States 

Lester S. Ivins, 
Central States 

Cyril A. Stebbins, 
Western States 

John L. Randall, 

Southeastern States 

REGIONAL AREAS 

Northeastern States: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, 
Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsyl- 
vania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, District of Columbia. 

Southeastern States: Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, 
South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi. 

Southern States: Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, Arkansas, 
Louisiana, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Colorado, New Mexico. 

Central States: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, 
Minnesota, Iowa, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska. 

Western States: Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, 
Arizona, Washington, Oregon, California. 

A Garden for Every Child. Every Child in a Garden, 



SCHOOL GARDENS 77 

A LETTER FROM PRESIDENT WILSON 

The White House, 

Washington. 

25 February, 1918. 

My Dear Mr. Secretary: I sincerely hope that you may be 
successful through the Bureau of Education in arousing the interest 
of teachers and children in the schools of the United States in the 
cultivation of home gardens. Every boy and girl who really sees 
what the home garden may mean will, I am sure, enter into the 
purpose with high spirits, because I am sure they would all like to 
feel that they are in fact fighting in France by joining the home 
garden army. They know that America has undertaken to send 
meat and flour and wheat and other foods for the support of the 
soldiers who are doing the fighting, for the men and women who 
are making the munitions, and for the boys and girls of western 
Europe, and that we must also feed ourselves while we are carry- 
ing on this war. The movement to establish gardens, therefore, 
and to have the children work in them is just as real and patriotic 
an effort as the building of ships or the firing of cannon. I hope 
that this spring every school will have a regiment in the Volunteer 
War Garden Army. 

Cordially and sincerely yours, 

WooDROw Wilson. 

Hon. Franklin K. Lane, 

Secretary of the Interior. 



A LETTER FROM SECRETARY LANE 

Dear Boys : I am glad to receive your letter and to know that 
last year you had a garden plot and that this year you intended 
to have another. There are boys and girls in Belgium and in 
France who had garden plots, but those have been blown up by 
shells, and some of the boys have been killed, too. You can make 
gardens now, and the boys and girls of France and Belgium will 
for all time be grateful to you. But your gardens will not be blown 
up. The more we raise here the more we will have to make strong 
the arm of our soldiers across the water. That is the reason that 
•we are trying to organize the boys and girls into a school garden 
army — they really will be soldiers, although not old enough to 
fight. We who stay at home have a very safe place compared with 



78 SCHOOL GARDENS 

the boys in France, and our gratitude for this safety is shown by 
the work that we do. 

The idea just conies into my mind that perhaps you know 
some soldier who has gone to France, and you might name your 
garden plot after him. Don't you think that this would be a 
good idea? 

Cordially yours, 

Franklin K. Lane. 
To Milton and Carroll Timberman, 

2698 Valentine Avenue, New York, N. Y. 

A LETTER FROM COMMISSIONER CLAXTON 

To Boys and Girls in the Schools of the United States, 
Greeting : 

We are now engaged in the greatest war in the history of the 
World. Your freedom and happiness depend on the result. If we 
win, the world will be free. If we lose, all the world will soon be in 
bondage to the autocratic German Government, and the freedom for 
which our fathers fought will be gone. Our young men are going to 
fight in France and Italy and on the seas. Older boys and girls 
will work in the fields, factories, mines, shops, stores, and elsewhere, 
to produce food, clothing, coal, and munitions of war. Most import- 
ant of all is food. Without it soldiers can not fight, workmen can 
not produce ships, guns, and shells ; and men, women, and children 
will die. The people of the United States must this year produce 
more food than they have ever produced before. The President 
of the United States is therefore asking all boys and girls from 
9 to 16 years of age in cities, towns, and villages to join the United 
States School Garden Army and grow vegetables, berries, fruits, 
and poultry. There are 7,000,000 such boys and girls. If 5,000,000 
of these volunteer, it will be the largest army ever raised in the 
United States and larger than all other boys and girls' clubs com- 
bined. By hard work and with wise direction they can produce 
food enough to feed all the hungry children of Belgium. Will you 
join the United States School Garden Army? Your teachers will 
tell you about the plan. 

A happy spring, summer, and fall of joyous, useful outdoor 
■^ork for you all. 

Yours sincerely, / 

P. P. Claxton, 
United States Commissioner of Education. 



SCHOOL GARDENS 79 



FIRST, CATCH YOUR RABBIT 



You remember the story of the boy who was telling about the 
rabbit he was going to eat, and his father said, ''Son, first catch 
your rabbit. ' ' Well, that 's the way you must do with these school 
gardens. Before you can eat the crops you expect to grow, you 
must get the garden. 

For you boys and girls living in the country this will probably 
be an easy matter. Your fathers will be glad to give you a piece of 
land for your own use, as large as you are able to handle, where 
you can groT" as many kinds of crops as you wish. 

For you boys and girls living in the towns or cities it may be 
a little harder to get the land for your garden. But many of you 
will have a back yard of your own where many vegetables can be 
grown; or your next-door neighbor will be glad to let you use his 
back yard. At any rate, don't be discouraged if you can't find a 
place for your garden the first thing. By looking around and 
sticking to it you will find that there are a great many back yards 
and vacant lots near your own home which the owners will be proud 
to let you use after you have told them of the wonderful work the 
School Garden Army is doing to help win the war. 

If your garden is to be in a back yard, pick out one that is 
not shaded too much by trees or buildings. Growing things need 
sunlight and plenty of it. And try to pick out land that isn't all 
clay or gravel. You can't expect to grow much on soil like that. 
Ask one of your friends who is a farmer or who has a garden of his 
own to help you pick out the right place for your garden. 

HOW TO PLAN YOUR GARDEN 

Many of us think of gardening as work to be done only during 
a few brief weeks in the spring. This is wrong. Your garden will 
do its best for you if plans for it are made in the autumn and 
much of its preparation done then. 

Here are some things you should think of in planning a garden : 

1. 8ize. — The average boy or girl can easily spade and care 
for a garden 10 by 30 feet. A garden of this size will go far to 
supply vegetables for a family of four. Your garden should be 
sufficiently large to grow enough vegetables to make it worth while, 
but not so large as to make its care too much of a task. 

2. Width between rows. — Eows must be farther apart if " 
horse or hand wheel cultivator is used than if you use ' 

such as a hoe or rake. 



80 



SCHOOL GARDENS 



3. Paths. — Since your plants must receive personal attention 
you should plan your garden with paths so that you can reach all 
parts of it without tramping down the plants. 

4. Rotation. — This means using the same ground for the 
growth of one kind of crop, followed by another of a different kind, 
as a crop of corn followed by a crop of beans. Each plant has 
habits peculiar to itself. One plant may draw heavily on soil 
potash, another on soil nitrogen. Besides, certain plants grown 
time after time in the same soil tends to poison it. Your planting 
schemes should avoid growing the same kind of plants over and over 
on the same ground. 

5. Keeping your garden at ivork. — A planting calendar will 
tell you how, by second and third sowings, you can have fresh vege- 
tables at all times during the gardening season. 

6. Use all your land. — Vegetables which ripen quickly may 
be grown among those which ripen slowly. Thus lettuce, radishes, 
spinach, and like vegetables may be planted in the soil between 
tomato plants, potatoes, corn, etc. 

7. Plants to grow. — The kinds of plants to be grown will de- 
termine very largely the nature of your plan. Radishes and lettuce 
may be planted closer together than cabbages or corn. 

8. Adding a touch of Ijeauty. — Finally, if you wish to make 
your garden not only productive but attractive, flowers -may be 
grown about the borders. 

HOW TO PREPARE YOUR GARDEN IN THE NORTH 

The soil for your garden should be spaded or plowed if possible 
in the fall. If this can not be done, then you should do it as early 
in the spring as possible. If your garden is too small to be plowed 
with a team, you should spade it deeply with a spading fork. Deep 
plowing and spading, followed by thorough harrowing and raking, 
puts the soil in the best condition to make your plants grow. When 
the soil is spaded, each spadeful as it is turned over should be 
broken up by striking with the back of the spade. When your 
garden soil crumbles in your hands, it is just right. 

Vegetables are heavy feeders and, therefore, they need a rich 

soil. Many experienced gardeners use what is known as compost on 

'■^^'r gardens. A compost heap is made of a mixture of meadow 

" \i J'ii>. :^'' straw, grass, lawn clippings, unused portions of food 

, ', "'<T^mgs from unoiled streets, lime or wood ashes, 

The plan usually followed is to first spread 



SCHOOL GARDENS 81 

out a layer of manure about four inches deep, then one of leaves 
or straw or vegetable waste. Upon these sprinkle a small quantity 
of lime or wood ashes ; then follow with a layer of earth an inch or 
two thick. Repeat this until all your material has been arranged in 
layers and placed in piles. Alternate layers of leaves or straw 
prevent the plant food contained in the stable fertilizer and street 
sweepings from being washed out and lost. 

Turn over your compost heap with a spading fork about twice 
a season. This mixes the materials more thoroughly and makes 
them decay more. In a dry climate you should pour water on the 
heap occasionally. 

A soon as part of your compost heap has rotted down enough 
to mix readily with the soil, it should be spaded in wherever needed. 
The coarser portions which are slow to decay may well be buried 
in the bottom of border beds for perennial flowers or vegetables. 

The thorough working into the soil of any stable or commercial 
fertilizer is important. Garden soils composed largely of clay are 
very likely to be sour, but you can fix this by putting one pound of 
air-slacked, burned, or hydrated lime ; two pounds of ground lime- 
stone ; or three pounds of unleached wood ashes on every twenty- 
five square feet of garden space. Coal ashes will help to loosen up 
a clay soil. 

The proper preparation of the soil and thorough working of 
all fertilizers into the soil are of utmost importance. The success 
of your garden will depend very largely upon the thoroughness 
with which your seed bed has been prepared. 

KEEPING YOUR GARDEN AT WORK IN THE SOUTH 

Every southern home should have a fall garden. That cold 
weather is coming is not a good reason to stop growing crops and 
to allow weeds to take your garden. Autumn is really another 
growing season and, your garden would produce at least a fourth 
more vegetables by keeping the land at work during this season 
of the year. 

Garden soil kept under cultivation in the fall is in better condi- 
tion for spring use. It should be cleared of all dead vines and 
other trash as soon as summer crops are gathered. Fall cultivation 
will help destroy insects as they live in winter in trash heaps or 
under the surface of the soil. Cultivating the soil breaks up this 
surface and throws these insects out of their winter homes. 

Your late garden work should consist of three things : 



82 SCtlOOL GARDENS 

■ 1. Taking care of your crops on hand. 

2. Planting other crops in their place. 

3. Getting ready for your next year's work. 

You should try to put a fall crop in the space of every gath- 
ered crop. Keep your land working. You should also pick out 
your fall crops with an eye to your next year's plantings. It is 
well to have a definite plan for your fall work, just as it is import- 
ant to plan definitely for your spring and summer work. July is 
about the first month in the South when you should begin to plan 
for your fall garden. 

Make up your mind, after careful study, what crops will best- 
suit your needs or the needs of your neighborhood and then plant 
only those crops. Aim to supply your own table just as long as it 
is possible to raise plants during the colder season. There will 
probably come a time later when it will be too cold to grow any- 
thing in the garden. Until that time comes make your garden 
work every minute of the day and night. 

TAKE GOOD CARE OF YOUR GARDEN 

Much of the waste in gardening is due to lack of care after 
the garden has been successfully, started. It is easy enough to plant 
a garden but it takes 'patience and continued care to grow a full 
crop. You ought not to waste anything, now that there is so much 
demand for food products. Every plant you have in your garden 
that is neglected and allowed to die is just so much loss to your 
country. 

You should cultivate the soil shortly after each rain in order 
to break the dried crust and make a layer of dust on top to keep 
the ground moist underneath. Never work your soil when it is 
too wet. It should be dry enough to crumble in your hands before 
a garden plow or hand hoe is used. 

Practice regular and thorough stirring of the soil throughout 
the season. Gardeners sometimes neglect this during dry times. 
Even if a layer of dust is already present, your garden will be 
helped by regular cultivation. Cultivation, besides making a layer 
of dust on top, will : 

1. Loosen and break up the ground into smaller pieces. 

2. Increase the amount of food that the plants live on, and 
make it easier for them to get it. 

3. Make it easier for the air to get to each piece of soil. 

4. Mix the fertilizer better with the soil. 

5. Destroy weeds and insects. 



SCHOOL GARDENS 83 

While your vegetables are small, cultivate close to the plants 
and as deeply as the plants are in the soil. As your vegetables 
grow larger, do not cultivate so deeply but farther from the row. 
You should cultivate at regular intervals until the plants have 
grown so large as to make it difficult to use a cultivator. In a small 
garden a hand hoe or weeder may then be used if more stirring 
seems necessary. 

The wheel hoe is set up on wheels and has several different 
kinds of shovels. These may be changed for different kinds of work. 
The wheel hoe is used to cultivate between the rows. It is also used 
to get the garden ready to plant. It is one of the most useful 
garden tools. A spade is used to dip up the soil. If you use a garden 
line in your garden, you can keep your rows straight, thus giving 
your garden a better appearance. 

HUMUS— THE FOOD PRODUCER 

Humus is a little word of two syllables — hu-mus — that sounds 
a bit extraordinary. So did the word automobile 30 years ago. 
Yet humus is of vastly greater importance to America than are 
automobiles. 

It is up to the teachers of America to make the word humus as 
common as the word automobile, and its meaning as well known 
by the man on the street. 

Humus is the great basis of food production. The best way 
to Hooverize is to increase the humus in the soil. An ounce of 
humus will produce a pound of bread. 

Humus is simply the decayed or decaying parts of plants or 
animals in the soil. Even if derived directly from animals it 
came first from the growth of plants. The black leaf mold on top 
of the soil in the woods is almost pure humus in an early stage of 
decay. The black soil of swamps is also nearly pure humus in a 
late stage of decay. 

The great trouble with most of our poor soils is that for them 
every day is a humusless day. The first duty of many soldiers in 
the United States School Garden Army is to furnish humus to such 
soils. Old leaves, straw, grass, animal or plant refuse of any 
kind — even garbage when it can't be used to feed pigs or poultry — 
may be worked directly into the soil or made into a compost heap, 
which you have already learned about, to decay and be dug in later. 

An appalling waste of humus is taking {)lace all the time. We 
throw it away. We burn it. We let the rivers carry it off. We 
neglect to produce it as we should. 



84 SCHOOL GARDENS 

Let's get down to the real basis in this great business of food 
production. Let 's teach the children of America that to save humus 
and put it to work is the first duty of the patriot. If food will win 
the war — humus will produce the food. 

MANURES 

All garden crops require a rich soil, well supplied with humus. 
Humus is decayed vegetable or animal matter. Barnyard or stable 
manure is the best garden fertilizer because it furnishes this humus. 
In some places it is impossible to get manures for the garden, and 
you will have to use commercial fertilizers and materials from the 
compost heaps, which have been described. 

When manures are selected for your garden, you should take 
care that there is nothing in them that will hurt the soil. Sawdust 
and shavings in manure tend to make the soil sour. If the manure 
used comes from stables, all shavings and sawdust should be re- 
moved if possible. The manure from sheep, pigeons, and chickens 
contains a great deal of food that the plants use. These manures 
are more valuable than the ordinary barnyard manures, but must 
not be spread too thickly over your garden. 

It is generally customary to work coarse manure into garden 
soil in the fall so that it will have time to decay. In the spring, 
well-rotted manure can be worked into the soil with a digging fork. 
The amount of manure necessary for your garden will depend 
upon the condition of the soil. Poor worn-out soils will necessarily 
need jmore than rich, mellow soils. From 20 to 30 tons of manure 
an acre is generally very satisfactory. This means about a pound 
of manure to every square foot of garden space. 

Humus may be added to the garden soil by planting what is 
known as a leguminous crop. Cowpeas, soy beans, and vetch are 
excellent crops for this purpose. Such crops take nitrogen out of 
the air and store it in their roots. After these crops are plowed 
into the soil, the nitrogen is said to be " fixed ' ' and young growing 
plants can use it as they need it. This plan of putting humus into 
the soil is followed only between cropping times and can not be 
successfully used to any great extent while your garden is in action. 
When green crops are thus plowed or spaded into the soil, we call 
it green manuring. • 



SCHOOL GARDENS 85 

ROTATING YOUR GARDEN CROPS 

When you grow certain crops on the same garden soil in such 
a way that they follow each other in regular order, it is called 
"crop rotation." A rotation in which you plant corn in your garden 
the first year, followed by potatoes the second year, and some 
crop of the clover family the third year, would be known as a three- 
year rotation. Many gardeners make the mistake of planting the 
same garden crop year after year in the same garden space and 
hence do not rotate their crops. 

ADVANTAGES OF ROTATION 

Experienced gardeners have found the following some of the 
advantages secured by rotating garden crops : 

1. By planting potatoes in a new place in the garden you 
will get rid of the potato scab. 

2. By planting cabbage in a new place, club-root is gotten 
rid of and there are not so many insect pests. 

3. Different plants will be able to get their food from different 
soil depths. The potato, onion, and beet get their food from the 
first six inches of the soil. When these crops are followed by sweet 
corn, because of the longer roots of the corn plant, its food is gotten 
from a greater depth. 

4. A greater variety of vegetables may be grown and your 
labor spread out over the year. 

5. If you were to grow only one crop, the ground would be 
bare part of the year, but with a variety of crops you can have 
something growing for a longer part of the time. 

6. Weeds that prove quite troublesome to some garden crops, 
like onions, may be gotten rid of by planting sweet corn in the 
same space and cultivating the soil more thoroughly. 

7. In general, it is a good practice to find a new place occa- 
sionally for your whole garden if you have the room. If you do 
this, many plant diseases, as well as insects, will disappear. 

HOW TO MAKE YOUR HOTBED 

If your garden does not have a hotbed for raising early plants 
you should build one during October when time can be given to it. 
Making a hotbed is not difficult and gives you a fine opportunity to 
show how much of a carpenter you are. Every garden supervised 
by the school authorities should have a hotbed and the building of 



86 SCHOOL GARDENS 

this should be one of the earliest garden duties. If your bed is 
properly made in the fall, it will be in excellent condition for the 
next spring work. 

In making your hotbed, a pit is dug from 2 to 3 feet deep and 
from 5 to 6 feet wide. Glass sashes are used to cover the pit. 
These sashes are generally 6 feet long and 3 feet wide, but other 
sizes may be used if necessary. Make the pit long enough to fit the 
size of the sash chosen. 

Place a 2-inch plank, 12 to 15 inches wide, on edge, on the 
north side of the bed. Then on the south side of the pit place a 
plank about half the width of the one used on the north side. The 
sash, resting on these boards, will then slope toward the south and 
you will get better results from the sunlight. The ends of the bed 
are closed with boards cut to fit snugly and soil is banked up all 
around the framework to keep out the cold. The pit should be dug 
and the framework arranged in the fall. 

The sashes may be hinged at the top and held up by strong 
sticks when the pit is opened, or they may be hinged on the side and 
thrown back when the pit is opened. Sometimes the sashes are 
made to slide in and out on strips of wood set into the sides of the 
hotbed. The opening of the sashes is necessary to ventilate the bed 
properly and to allow you to work in the pit. 

About 10 or 12 weeks before the time of out-door planting the 
pit should be filled with well heated stable manure. This manure 
is covered with 6 or 8 inches of rich soil, finely powdered. Keep the 
soil moist while it is being heated by the fermenting manure. Keep 
a soil thermometer in the pit and carefully read the temperature 
from day to day. When the temperature falls to 90 or 85 degrees, 
it is safe to sow your seeds. If the bed has been properly made 
it will give out enough heat to grow plants during a period of five 
or six weeks. 

If you can not buy glass sashes, you can stretch strong white 
canvas across the pit. 

HOW TO MAKE YOUR GOLDFRAME 

A coldframe is made like a hotbed, except that no manure is 
used. Enough heat is secured from the sun. 

A coldframe is used to harden plants that have been grown 
in a hotbed, or to continue the growing of certain plants during 
the winter months. If you should take plants like the tomato 
directly from the hotbed and plant them in the open field, they 



SCHOOL GARDENS 87 

would probably die. They can not stand the quick, great change 
from warm to cold conditions. If, however, such plants are first 
hardened by being transplanted to a coldframe, they are able to 
stand a good deal of cold without injury. 

Coldframes should be made in the fall so that they will be 
ready for spring work. It is sometimes well to have two or three 
coldframes in your garden, especially in the north, as they will save 
your plants during the cold, spells of spring. 

In the middle of the day, when the air is warm, the glass or 
canvas above the frame may be raised. This gives the plants a 
better ventilation and at the same time hardens them. As night 
comes on the plants should be covered. Later on, the frames may 
be kept open for a large part of the day, but only when the day 
is warm. Before the plants are taken up and planted in your 
garden, the sashes should be kept off the frame for several days. 

Vegetable seeds may be planted much sooner in coldframes 
than outside. Thus tomatoes, cabbages, cauliflowers, onions, etc., 
may be given an early start. 

Leaf vegetables, such as lettuce, are better if grown entirely 
in a coldframe. They may be protected from frost, from too much 
heat, and from birds. 

In many of the Northern States you can not grow plants in a 
hotbed or coldframe during winter unless more protection is given. 
This is sometimes done by placing straw or hay over the glass. Hay 
mats are very useful for this purpose. 

HOW TO KEEP JACK FROST AWAY 

With some thought and care your garden may be kept pro- 
ducing after the first light frosts of the fall, and the same atten- 
tion will save plants from the late spring frosts. There are several 
ways of protecting your plants from frost that wiU make the garden 
season longer. During the time when frost may be expected you 
should read in the papers what the weather man says and see 
whether he thinks there will be a frost. After a while you may be 
able yourself to tell when to expect a frost. 

Thousands of dollars have been saved by growers, especially 
in the western parts of the United States, through the use of what 
are called smudge pots. This is done by putting cans that will hold 
a gallon or more of oil in different parts of your garden. Place 
about one can to each 25 square feet of garden space. Fill the 
cans with a light crude oil, which should cost about 5 cents a gallon. 



OO SCHOOL GARDENS 

Keep the cans covered. When the thermometer reaches the danger 
point and a frost is expected, throw a tablespoonfnl of gasoline on 
the oil in the can and light with a torch. The oil will burn in these 
cans from 3 to 5 hours. Put a thermometer in the coldest place in 
your garden. Watch the temperature to see whether or not it rises 
or falls. If the temperature continues to fall, keep the cans going 
by refilling until the danger point is passed. 

Cheesecloth, muslin, sacking, or newspapers thrown over gar- 
den plants, such as tomatoes and fall-bearing strawberries, will 
keep them from being killed by frost. Where your plants are very 
small use muslin that has been placed over light wood frames. 
Large frames may also be made to cover several plants at a time. 
In spring small potato plants just coming through the ground may 
be protected by covering them with soil, which should be taken off 
as soon as the danger of frost is over. Tin cans and fruit boxes 
placed over small plants at night will protect them from frost. 

If frosted plants are sprinkled freely with water before the 
sun rises they may often be saved from absolute loss. It is 
claimed that if the garden is irrigated while the temperature is at 
a danger point, garden plants may be protected by the water used. 

By using some plan of protecting your plants from frost for a 
few nights the growing season may be made several weeks longer. 
In many places there will be one or two frosts that might kill all 
your plants, followed by a long period of warm weather. If your 
garden can be protected during these few nights much more pro- 
duce will be secured from the garden during the season. 

HOW TO KILL THE INSECTS 

Insects that feed on plants get their food in two ways; some 
'bite out pieces of the leaf, stem, or fruit; others stick a pointed 
beak into the plant and suck up the sap. Some insects may be 
killed by putting arsenate of lead or other poison on the plant. 
Other insects are not hurt in this way but must be killed by some 
poison which gets directly on their bodies. 

Cabbage worms, flea beetles, potato beetles, celery caterpillars, 
and tomato worms are good examples of insects that bite plants. 
Aphids or plant lice, leaf hoppers, squash bugs, scale insects, and 
various plant bugs are good examples of insects that suck up the 
sap. As a rule, the biting insects are rather easier to kill than 
the sucking insects, because it is only necessary to dust or spray 
the plant at almost any time before the insects attack it. In the 



SCHOOL GARDENS 89 

case of the sucking iusects it is necessary to put the poison on the 
plants at the time when the insects are present and to repeat it 
until all are killed. 

The best way to kill biting insects is to use arsenate of lead. 
This may be purchased from all seedsmen and florists, as well as 
at most hardware and paint stores, in either of two forms : A paste 
which is especially intended for spraying, or a dry powder which 
may be used either for spraying or dusting. The way to use 
arsenate of lead is told in the next chapter. One great advantage 
of arsenate of lead is that either as a liquid spray or a dry powder 
it may be put on the plants in almost any strength without danger 
of hurting them. 

Remember that arsenate of lead is a deadly poison. It must 
never he left where young children may get it. 

Write out a list of the insects you have seen that bite plants. 

HOW TO USE ARSENATE OF LEAD 

As you have learned in the last chaper, arsenate of lead is the 
best poison to kill insects that bite plants. It may be put on the 
plants in these ways : 

1. Put the dry powder on the leaves and stems with a powder 
bellows, powder gun, or duster. The best time to do this is early in 
the morning before the dew has evaporated. Put the powder on 
thick enough to show a white coating on the plant. This is the 
easiest and simplest way to kill most insects that bite plants. 

2. Spray the plants with lead arsenate powder in water by 
means of a small pump or hand sprayer in this strength : 

Three level teaspoonsful lead arsenate powder to one quart 

water, or 
One ounce or about 10 level teaspoonsful lead arsenate 

powder to one gallon of water, or 
One pound lead arsenate' powder to 25 gallons of water. 

3. If the paste form of lead arsenate is used instead of the 
powder, use twice as much lead arsenate in each case. 

4. If you find it difficult to make the lead arsenate stick to the 
leaves, as you may when putting it on cabbage and asparagus, add 
resin fish oil soap at the rate of 1 ounce or a piece about 2 inches 
square to each gallon of water. Dissolve the soap in hot water 
before mixing with the 1-ead arsenate water. 



90 ^ SCHOOL GARDENS 

ANOTHER ENEMY, THE APHIDS OR PLANT LICE 

The aphids or plant lice are probably the most generally 
troublesome garden insects. They attack nearly all crops and often 
cause the withering or death of the plants. 

These aphids are sucking insects. Each has a sharp beak that 
it sticks into leaf, stem, or fruit. Then it sucks out the sap. Al- 
though these pests are so small, they increase in number very 
rapidly. Each gives birth to many young ones and these young 
aphids grow up in a week. So one aphid upon a plant may soon 
cause it to be covered with the little green, brown, or black flies. 
The large number of sucking beaks soon kills the leaf or plant. 

Flowers as well as vegetables are commonly attacked by these 
little creatures. A black kind is often found in large numbers on 
nasturtiums, A brown kind attacks chrysanthemums. Several 
sorts of green aphids may be found on other flowers. 

Because these pests get their food by sucking the sap instead 
of biting out pieces of the leaf, they can not be killed by putting 
poisons like arsenate of lead or Paris green on the surface of tlie 
plant. As you learned in another chapter, when you spray or dust 
such arsenical poisons on potato leaves, the bits of poison are eaten 
by the potato beetles and the beetles die. But the aphids or any 
other sucking insects simply push their beaks between the bits of 
poison to reach the sap within the leaf, and are not hurt by such 
poisons. 

The best thing to use to kill aphids is the nicotine poison in 
tobacco, described in the last chapter. 

In using nicotine washes or sprays against these little pests 
you must not be content with spraying but once. You should spray 
your plants two or three times, because if only a few aphids are 
left they will soon multiply into a great number. 

You should use a sprayer that makes a fine mist which will 
reach all parts of the plants that are being attacked. In the case of 
vine crops, like melons and cucumbers, you should also spray the 
under surfaces of all leaves. 

Do you remember what you learned about the use of kerosene 
wash or emulsion to kill these sucking insects? 



SCHOOL GARDENS 



91 



WHEN TO GATHER YOUR VEGETABLES 

If you take good care of your garden all through the season, 
following the directions given in this manual, you may expect to 
gather a good crop. This table tells you when to gather several 
kinds of vegetables that you will grow : 



Crop. 


Time to Gather. 


Remarks. 




When young 


Beet greens, when tender, make a 






delicious dish. 


Brussels sprout=;..., 
Cabbag-e (early) 


After frost 


Cold improves this vegetable. 


Wlien three-fourths 


May be left until frost. 




W^hen young' 


Sliould always be gathered young 






when used for soups. 


Chard 


When outside leaves 
are about 1 foot high 


Cut lightly at first. Midribs of 
leaves can be used like aspara- 
gus. 


KO'hl-rabi 


Before skin hardens.... 


The bulb should be about two- 
thirds as large as a baseball. 


Lettuce .. 


While leaves are 

tender 


Small, young lettuce leaves make 
best salads. 




While still green 


Pods should be spongy at the tip. 


Melons.. 


When they crack 

around the stem 


Let your melons ripen on stem if 
possible. 


Potatoes 


When vines are dry 


Harvest a few at a time except at 
end of season. 




When young 


Radishes get tough and spongy 
with age. 






String beans - 

S'hell beans 


When they snap 

readily 

When pods are well 
filled 


Tips should be soft and easily 
bent or twisted. 




Do not let them dry on vines. 


Sweet corn. 


When it has just come 
to milk with black- 


Should be used as soon as picked. 









YOUR ENEMY THE CABBAGE WORM 

The cabbage worms are the worst enemies of cabbages and 
cauliflower. - They are greenish caterpillars that may easily be 
found in the garden at almost any time. They eat the leaves of 
the growing plants, giving them a ragged appearance. As the 
cabbages head up they eat the inner leaves and often ruin the 
heads. 

Like other insects, this cabbage worm has a life story which 
is worth telling : 

Some fine morning a common white butterfly may come to your 



92 SCHOOL GARDENS 

garden. She stops to lay an egg on the cabbage leaf and then flies 
away. A week later the egg hatches into a tiny green worm or 
caterpillar. 

The little caterpillar nibbles at the green surface of the leaf, 
and begins to grow. It nibbles away for a week or so. Then it has 
eaten so much that it has become too large for the skin with which 
it was born. So it sheds this skin or molts and crawls out with a 
new skin which had been formed beneath the old one. 

After the first molt the caterpillar feeds again upon the leaf, 
and keeps this up for several days before it is ready to molt the 
second time. Then it sheds its skin as before. 

The caterpillar keeps on feeding and shedding its skin for 
about a month. Then it is full grown so far as this part of its life 
is concerned. It now crawls to the underside of a cabbage leaf or 
a stone, or board, and fastens itself by a mat of silken threads. 
Here it sheds its skin' for the last time and becomes what is called 
a quiet chrysalis. 

After another week the quiet chrysalis changes to a white 
butterfly like the one that laid the egg. 

HOW TO PROTECT YOUR CABBAGES 

The injuries of cabbage worms may be prevented in these ways : 

1. Dusting the young cabbages with road dust, ashes, or some- 
thing similar which prevent the laying of the eggs. 

2. Catching and killing the butterflies that lay the eggs. 

3. Dusting or spraying the young plants — 'before they begin 
to head, never after — with arsenate of lead. 

4. Dusting or spraying the plants with hellebore, after they 
begin to head. 

5. Pouring on hot water — at a temperature of 130° to 150° 
Fahrenheit. 

HOW TO USE KEROSENE WASH OR EMULSION 

You remember that there are two kinds of insects that may 
attack your garden, those that bite the leaves and stems and those 
that suck the sap from the plants. You have learned about the 
biting insects and how to protect your plants from them. Now you 
are lo learn hov^ to prevent damage by the sucking insects. 

The best things to use to kill aphids or plant lice and other 
insects that suck the sap from the o-reen leaves and stems of crop 
plants are kerosene wash or emulsion and the nicotine extracts of 
tobacco. 



SCHOOL GARDENS 93 

Kerosene, like other oils, kills any insects that it touches. The 
oil goes through the breathing tubes to all parts of the body, causing 
death. But kerosene alone also kills the green parts of leaves and 
stems, so it can not be used alone on crops that are being attacked 
by insects. 

When kerosene and hot soapsuds are mixed together they make 
a wash or what is called an emulsion which you can put on the 
green surfaces of plants without hurting them. This mixture is 
still strong enough to kill the insects. 

To make a supply of kerosene emulsion you will need a pail, 
a small spray pump, and a place to heat water. The emulsion is 
easily made by following these directions : 

Heat one-half gallon of water to boiling. Slice half a bar of 
soap into pieces and stir it in the water until dissolved. Take it 
from the fire and pour these hot soapsuds into a pail into which 
you have put a gallon of kerosene. Then pump the mixture back 
and forth into the pail until the kerosene is thoroughly mixed witli 
the soapsuds, forming an emulsion. 

When the emulsion is made it can at once be diluted with 
water, mixing easily while still warm. One part of the emulsion 
should be mixed with ten parts of water. 

When the emulsion cools it becomes a jellylike mass, like soft 
soap. This will keep for months if stored in a cool place. Some 
of it may be used at any time, diluting with 10 parts of water to 
1 part of emulsion. If it is first mixed with a little hot water it 
dilutes more easily. 

A small amount of kerosene emulsion may be made by dissolv- 
ing one cubic inch of soap in half a pint of hot water and then 
shaking hard with a pint of kerosene until thoroughly mixed. This 
is then to be diluted with 10 parts of water. 

STORING YOUR VEGETABLES 

The storing of vegetables that are not used as soon as gathered 
is very important, as it is a fine way to lay up food for future 
use. It is a way to Hooverize many vegetables that you cannot eat 
at once. Especially at this time' during the war, we must save and 
use every product possible, and we must not have any waste. 

Potatoes, carrots, onions, beets, turnips, and many other of 
your garden products may be kept for winter use by storing. You 
will get the best results from storage if care is taken regarding the 
proper temperature and ventilation needed, the amount of mois- 



94 . SCHOOL GARDENS 

ture necessary, and the quality of the vegetables when first put in 
storage. 

Some vegetables may be stored on your mother 's pantry shelves 
while others should be put in the cellar, and still others kept in 
outdoor pits. Sometimes several neighbors join together and build 
a pit or storage cellar for their vegetables. This is known as com- 
munity storage. When several gardeners do this the cost to each' 
is small, and the vegetables can be handled more easily. 

If you store your vegetables in the cellar, you must take care 
to see that there is enough ventilation and that the proper temper- 
ature may be easily kept. The cellar should have a good earth floor, 
or, if it has a concrete floor, the floor should be covered with 3 inches 
of sand. This floor should be kept moist. Beets, celery, cabbage, 
parsnips, turnips, and potatoes may be stored in the cellar. 

The best way to store vegetables outdoors is to use a pit. To 
build this, dig a hole in the ground 6 inches deep and as wide and 
long as necessary to hold the vegetables to be stored when piled up. 
Before putting the vegetables in the pit it should be lined with 
hay or straw. Cover the piled vegetables with several inches of 
hay or straw, and then cover the mound with 4 or 5 inches of soil. 
As cold weather comes on, add 10 or 12 inches of soil to the covering 
of the pit. 

SELLING YOUR VEGETABLES 

After your own home table has been supplied with all the 
vegetables that it needs, you should sell your extra products as fast 
as they are ready for the market. Your home needs should be 
supplied first before you attempt to sell to your neighbors. If 
you raise enough vegetables to supply the needs of your own fam- 
ily you are doing a patriotic war duty, because, in so doing, you are 
making it possible for other vegetables to go to our soldier boys 
that would have been needed at home. 

You should not only supply your family needs and pay for 
the cost of your garden, but you should make a neat profit on the 
vegetables you raise. Don't you think it would also be a fine idea 
to invest your vegetable profits in War Savings Stamps? 

Most selling from our village or city gardens is done by ped- 
dling among our neighbors. This encourages thrift and business 
system on your part. It is a training that you boys and girls ought 
not to neglect. To sell your vegetables readily there are a few 
rules that should be followed : 



SCHOOL GARDENS 95 

1. Gather all vegetables when they are ripe and ready f or ^ 
the market. Do not pick half-ripe fruits; choose only those that 
are ready for a quick sale. 

2. Grade your vegetables according to size and quality. Do 
not have a mixture of large and small sizes and good and poor 
vegetables. 

3. Make your display of fruit attractive. Customers will 
buy quicker and pay more if the goods offered for sale look neat 
and clean. 

4. Do not put the best vegetables on top while poorer ones 
are hidden beneath. It would be better to separate the kinds and 
sell them separately. 

5. Be honest. Do not claim for your goods what they will not 
show. Try to keep your customers by honest dealing. 

6. Whatever boxes or baskets are used for selling or display- 
ing your vegetables, make them attractive. 

Build up a reputation for yourself for honesty and fair deal- 
ing. 

TYPES OF MARKETING 

Community types: 

(a) Children's community market in an attractive central 
location. 

(b) Children's space in the municipal market. 

(c) Children's market at the school. 
Individual types : 

(a) Children's markets at home. This plan provides for sale 
to those who call at the home, as well as that sold to 
neighbors. 

(b) By use of parcel post. 
Co-operative types : 

(a) Provision for sale of produce through the U. S. S. G. A. 
officers at central location in city, at school, or in the 
municipal market. 

THE MARKET 

Preparation : 

(a) All produce should be in the best possible marketable 
state. 

(b) Produce should be graded according to size, 
(e) All produce should be clean, fresh, and crisp. 



96 



SCHOOL GARDENS 



(d) Produce should be graded according to quality. 
Display of vegetables : 

(a) Make the market display attractive. 

(b) Use uniform and inexpensive containers. 

(c) See that all produce is free from defects. 

(d) Arrange the display according to types. 
Some exariiples of various types : 

(a) Root type — Carrots and turnips. 

(b) Head type — Cabbage and head lettuce. 

(c) Stem type — Celery and potatoes (underground). 

(d) Leaf type — Leaf lettuce and spinach. 

A SONG FOR THE SCHOOL GARDEN ARMY 

Composed by Master Joe Lee Davis, 
Junior High School, Lexington, Ky. 

Johnnie, get your hoe, get your hoe, get your hoe ; 

Mary, dig' your row, dig your row, dig your row; 
Down to business, girls and boys. 

Learn to know the farmer's joys. 
Uncle Sam's in need, pull the weed, plant the seed, 

"While the sunbeams lurk do not shirk, get to work ; 
All the lads must spade the ground, 

All the girls must hustle round. 

CHORUS 

Over there, over there; 

Send the word, send the word over there. 
That the lads are hoeing, the lads are hoeing, 

The girls are sowing ev'ry where, 
Each a garden to prepare ; 

Do your bit, so that we all can share 
With the boys, with the boys, the brave boys. 

Who will not come back 'til it's over, over there. 

A PAGE FOR THE TEACHER 

The preceding pages are intended largely for instruction to 
pupils; those that follow are intended to carry various suggestions 
to teachers in their relations to pupils. 

The United States School Garden Army was organized in 
March, 1918, and many leaflets were sent out to teachers and super- 
visors during the succeeding months. The insignia, or service 



SCHOOL GARDENS 97 

badges, were furnished to more than a million children and many 
thousands of service flagS;, Pied Piper posters, and record books 
were distributed. 

Thanks to the appropriation that President Wilson has allotted 
for continuing the work, the United States School Garden Army 
is prepared to furnish during the school year of 1918-19 the follow- 
ing: 

The Fall Manual of the United States School Garden Army; 

The Spring Manual of the United States School Garden Army ; 

Insignia or service badges for officers and privates; 

Service flags for Garden Army Soldiers ; 

Pied Piper posters; 

Regional leaflets for supervisors and teachers. 

These will be sent free to all schools working under United 
States School Garden Army organization. 

Heretofore, gardening, so far as it has been touched by the 
schools, has been largely a matter of sporadic impulse for a few 
weeks in spring. The present world crisis shows the necessity of 
a much more serious and continuous interest throughout the year. 
The letters on the preliminary pages of this Manual show the 
opir^ions of President Wilson and other leaders as to the importance 
of gardening in the schools. It has become the privilege of every 
teacher to servp humanity by leading her pupils to sympathetic 
consideration of garden problems to the end that they may become 
intelligent producers of food and beauty, not alone during these 
years of their youth but also throughout their lives. 

This Manual will be supplemented by various leaflets for each 
of the five regions. These leaflets will be sent free to any teacher 
on application. 

The various garden subjects treated should be used for class- 
room exercises as well as for outdoor projects. The teacher will 
readily see where these topics may be correlated with other school 
work. Elaboration of the suggested lessons is not only permissible 
but is to be encouraged as much as possible. 

PLANNING FOR NEXT YEAR'S SEEDS 

Last spring many Congressmen received requests for seeds 
from members of the United States School Garden Army. Most of 
these requests came so late that the seeds could not be furnished 
because the supply was exhausted. 



98 SCHOOL GARDENS 

To avoid a repetition of this experience the following sug- 
gestions are made to teachers and garden supervisors : 

1. After school opens let the pupils discuss — perhaps in con- 
nection with their language lessons — the crops which have been 
most satisfactory. 

2. Work up a collective statement of the amount of food 
raised by the Garden Army Company, developing the topic in con- 
nection with arithmetic. Be critical of the reports each pupil 
makes. 

3. After a full discussion make a blackboard list of the kinds 
of crops the pupils wish to raise another year. 

4. Have the pupils appoint a committee of three to write to 
their Congressman. This committee may well consist of the offi- 
cers of the company. Suggest that they tell him of their garden 
experiences as members of the United States School Garden Army, 
and that the pupils would like a supply of certain seeds for next 
spring — naming the seeds on the blackboard list. 

5. Instead of letting the officers write the letter, all the pupils 
might be allowed to write it as an exercise in letter writing, and 
the three best letters be sent. 

6. In either case inclose with the letter a copy of the collective 
statement as to the food raised by the company. 

7. This opportunity .should be utilized as a lesson in civics, 
letting each pupil learn the number and the geographical limits of 
the congressional district in which the school is situated and the 
name of the Congressman now representing the district. Let them 
see pictures of the National Capitol and of the Congressional Office 
Buildings. 

This suggestion is important and should be followed early in 
the school year. 

SUGGESTIONS AS TO ORGANIZATION 

The following suggestions are submitted to teachers and super- 
visors in the hope that they may be helpful in promoting the 
organization of the companies of the United States School Garden 
Army: 

Number of members in a company : Ten to one hundred and 

fifty.' 

Age limit: Any school child, but preferably the more 
important companies should be enlisted from the pupils above the 
third grade. 



SCHOOL GARDENS 99 

Eequirements for enlistment: The signing of the enlistment 
sheet in which the pupil agrees to raise one or more food crops and 
to keep records of his work and the results, reporting them to the 
teacher or garden supervisor. These enlistment sheets will be fur- 
nished by this bureau. The enlistment sheets are to be retained by 
the garden teacher or supervisor, or filed with the superintendent of 
schools. The disposition of the record books is left with the garden 
teacher or garden supervisor. They are not to be sent to this bureau. 

A company : The maximum number of soldiers in a company 
is 150. 

Officers : Each company to have a captain and two lieutenants. 

Insignia: For the privates, a bronze service bar with U. S. 
S. G. on it. For second lieutenant the same bar with one star in 
the border. For first lieutenant the same bar with two stars in the 
border. For the captain the same bar with three stars in the 
border. These insignia will be furnished by us upon request stating 
the number of enlisted garden soldiers. 

Enlistment of existing organizations : Any organization of 
school children now doing garden work will be eligible to enlistment. 
Such organizations may keep their existing form, if they so desire, 
and have the additional impetus of belonging to a national army 
fostered by President "Wilson, the Secretary of the Interior, and 
the Commissioner of Education. The aim of this army is to 
nationalize and unify the great work in gardening now being 
carried on and to make it a permanent part of the course of study 
in all the schools of America. 

JUDGING THE HOME GARDENS 

The fairest way to judge a garden is to visit it while it is in 
operation. The judges can then see the conditions involved in 
making it successful, and can estimate pretty fairly the various 
points to be considered. Such an estimate is difficult at best, and 
the following score card is offered simply as a suggestive guide, 
which any set of judges may modify to suit themselves. Any such 
modifications should, of course, be agreed upon in advance : 

Score card for judging home gardens. 

A, General appearance _. 20 

Arrangement of rows 5 

Freedom from weeds 5 

Cultivation and care 5 

Proper thinning 5 



100 SCHOOL GARDENS 

B. Choice of vegetables --- - - 15 

For home use - 5 

For marketing 5 

For canning : -- 5 

C. Freedom from pests — 15 

Spraying for insects --.- - - 5 

Spraying for disease --.- --- - 5 

Other remedial measures..... -..- —. 5 

D. Evidences of --- - 15 

Continuous cultivation 5 

Companion cropping — 5 

Succession cropping -. — 5 

E. Care of tools -. - 10 

F. Value of produce .-- --- 15 

Used at home -.-.- .--.- 5 

Sold in the market -.- 5 

Used for canning -.— - 5 

G. Accuracy of garden records 10 



Total - - — - — 100 



STORIES OF BEANS AND OTHER THINGS 

The garden operations of the pupils make an excellent basis 
for language stories. Such stories embody real first-hand know- 
ledge. In telling them the pupils feel the interest of a personal 
experience. 

One advantage in developing such stories is that they can 
readily be adapted to the different grades. The length of the story 
depends chiefly upon the number of details mentioned. In the 
lower grades where the stories are made up of few sentences, only 
the principal facts are mentioned. In the upper grades details of 
development and structure are readily included. 

The following model stories are suggestive of the work that 
may be expected of -pupils in the third grade : 

MY BEAN SEEDS 

Yesterday I planted half a pint of bean seeds in my home 
garden. I put down a line to keep the row straight. I made a 
furrow along the line with a hoe. I dropped bean seeds in the 



SCHOOL GARDENS 101 

bottom of the furrow, one seed every two inches. I covered the 
seeds two inches deep. I hope they will come up soon. 

MY BEAN PLANTS 

Early last week I planted some bean seeds in my home garden. 
This morning I saw them coming up. The stem is curved over at 
first. It pulls up the two thick seed leaves. Then the stem becomes 
straight and the large leaves begin to grow. I hope they will grow 
rapidly. 

Such stories may be oral or written or both. They help to 
make the language lessons real. 

USING THE SEED CATALOGUES 

The seed catalogues are excellent textbooks on school garden- 
ing. They are always up to date. They have attractive pictures. 
They give prices of seeds in packets or in bulk. They describe the 
best varieties. Many of them give directions for planting. 

These seed catalogues appeal strongly to pupils. Boys and 
girls know that they are the real thing. They see their value and 
soon learn how to use them. 

Here is a little plan for getting and using these catalogues : 

1. Tell the pupils to look in the advertising columns of the 
magazines for the names and addresses of seed houses that offer 
their catalogues free to those who apply. 

2. Make a blackboard list of all the firms reported. Get a list 
of at least six or eight such firms. 

3. Divide these firms among the pupils so that only a few will 
send to each firm. 

4. Have a lesson on the form of the application, allowing each 
pupil to make the request in his own way, provided it is in clear 
and simple English, with proper courtesy. Let the lesson end when 
the request is written on a post card or as a letter ready for mailing. 
Find stamps some way and see that the requests are mailed. 

5. When the catalogues come, have each pupil keep his own 
in his desk. Use these in connection with every crop which is 
planted. Let pupils look up lists of varieties and compare prices 
and descriptions. Many pupils will be able to bring recent seed 
catalogues from home. Let these be brought in such cases rather 
than to send for new ones. 

A live teacher cam, make these seed catalogues one of the livest 
features of a live school. , 



HOME ECONOMICS 

UNITED STATES FOOD ADMINISTRATION 

WASHINGTON, D. C. 

Subject : Distribution of New School Book. 

October 29, 1918. 

To all Federal Food Administrators : 

The School and College Section of the Food Administration 
expects to have ready for distribution in the near future enough 
copies of the new school book, "Food Saving and Sharing," to 
supply one to every teacher of children below high school rank. 

This book contains the most important facts regarding food, is 
attractive in style and appearance. It is being printed by Double- 
day, Page & Company, Garden City, New York, and we propose to 
have copies shipped from that office direct to county food adminis- 
trators, if this meets with your approval. Your county food admin- 
istrators should be instructed to co-operate with the city and county 
school superintendents in delivering the books to the teachers 
personally. 

We are sure you will appreciate that an approximate estimate 
of the number of such teachers in each state would not serve our 
purpose and we ask you, therefore, kindly to obtain for us through 
your state superintendent of schools, a list showing the exact num- 
ber of teachers in each of the counties in your state in all grade 
schools below the rank of high school. If possible, we should like 
to have- the number of teachers in rural schools given separately 
from the number of teachers in city schools. 

At a later date we expect to send to county administrators for 
distribution in a similar manner, a pamphlet entitled "A Talk to 
Teachers by Mr. Hoover." This pamphlet will contain advice to 
teachers with regard to the use of the school book and how to con- 
duct instruction in the subject of food. 

Faithfully yours, 
UNITED STATES FOOD ADMINISTRATION. 



HOME ECONOMICS 103 

HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN THE ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY 

SCHOOLS 

The very general introduction of Household Arts into the 
schools invites critical survey of the present educational status of 
this branch of the pedagogical tree. Inspection of the household 
arts phase of the curricula of the elementary and grammar schools, 
the high school, and the college reveals this situation: In a few 
schools the work presented would measure up excellently to the 
requirements of an accrediting committee. But all too frequently 
the courses are given in a hit-or-miss fashion, without definite 
aim, and without taking into account the mental development and 
ability of the student or her preparation through preliminary 
training. Much of the work now given in the high school is suited 
to the grammar grades, both in selection of subject matter and in 
method of presentation. The household arts content of some col- 
lege courses is presented after a method suitable to the high school, 
and, again, some of the subject matter and methods used do not 
merit a place in any school system. Criticism is tempered by the 
knowledge that the shortcomings in organization of this subject are 
but typical of any new venture. A partial explanation for such 
conditions may be offered on the ground that while the idea of 
presenting home training subjects in the schools was yet very new, 
superintendents were not sufficiently conversant with the possibil- 
ities of such work to supply directive assistance. Again, there has 
been difficulty in securing teachers adequately prepared to give 
safe and positive leadership. Of good text books very few were 
available. Now that these difficulties no longer present themselves 
as insurmountable barriers, it has seemed timely that we turn, our 
attention to articulation between the grade, the high school and the 
college. 

In the material to follow, there have been kept in mind unity 
in the plan for teaching, logical sequence in the development of 
working plans, selection of subject matter for the respective divi- 
sions of the school curricula that may best help the girl to under- 
stand her social relationships to the family, the school, the com- 
munity and the world at large, and, the methods of work that appeal 
to the mental attitude and ability of students in the groups 
considered. 



104 HOME ECON9MICS 

HOUSEHOLD ARTS AND THE RURAL SCHOOL 

This outline has been arranged with a view of placing a work- 
ing plan in the hands of the teacher who recognizes the need of a 
school interest in housekeeping, yet has not had special training 
along home-making lines. 

It is not intended that the outline be followed in its entirety 
by any school. Each locality, with its individual conditions, will 
call for modifications of any specific set of lessons. The fii-st and 
main essential is, that the lessons given have a practical value for 
the members of the school, rather than the narrow aim of recruiting 
the advance school. 

Work of this nature, if practically presented, should be at 
once a means of creating and upholding interest in the everyday 
affairs of the household, and should help to develop in a greater 
degree, observation, inventiveness and exactness. 

The household arts lessons outlined are grouped as to kind, 
but are, in the main, progressive, and so related that each lesson is 
preparatory to the one that shall follow. The occasional break in 
logical sequence is intentional, and the arrangement given is adapted 
to the season or some event. Lessons checked with the asterisk (*) 
are best reserved as advanced work. The subject matter given 
cannot be compassed in less than two years unless the time allowed 
exceeds one and a half hours a week. The outline of .work includes 
a consideration of the selection, preparation and serving of foods 
practical to the average home ; suggestions as to the conditions 
necessary to safe and healthful homes ; the care of house furnish- 
ings; the uses and relative values of supplies used in laundering 
clothes, practice in the care of the injured in such emergencies as 
burns, cuts, fainting, obstruction of the ear; the use of plain sew- 
ing stitches, adapting the stitch to the purpose served ; selection and 
care of clothing ; relation of clothing to health. The lessons of 
thrift learned in war-time should remain a permanent possession. 

The results expected must, of necessity, vary greatly in the 
rural school, but it should be so presented that the younger stu- 
dents may have some part in the development of the greater number 
of lessons. The part taken by the second grade boy may be limited 
to the measuring of sugar or milk for the cooking lesson, or to draw- 
ing bastings from the piece of sewing work just completed by the 
older students, or to scouring the knives in the dishwashing. But 
to insure the greatest success, there should be co-operation on the 
part of the entire school. It is suggested that, while the girls are 



HOME ECONOMICS 105 

following directions given for sewing, the boys may be interested 
in constrncting the cupboard to be nsed, in fitting window-boards, 
minor repairs necessary to the upkeep of desks and other equip- 
ment, repairs such as setting loosened screws, or, in working out 
some of the special problems in agriculture. The sewing may also 
supply a ' ' pick-up ' ' work for the girls, when the lesson assignments 
are completed. The cooking lesson may be directly applied and 
extended in the frequent preparation of food in sufficient quantity 
to serve as the main part of the school luncheon. Highly valuable 
are the lessons in co-operation that may result. 

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES 

Since there cannot in the rural schools be equipment for 
individual work, students may work in groups, under the direction 
of the teacher. The students will, without urging, "try out" the 
lesson at home and report back their success. 

The food supplies for the one lesson a week will, in most 
instances, be gladly donated from the homes represented or business 
arrangement may be entered upon for the purchase of the same. 

Special points to which attention is called are : The value, of 
neatness and exactness in the execution of class exercises ; the keep- 
ing of strict account of the money value of supplies used whether 
purchased by the school or acquired through donation, and the 
keeping accurate and well-organized notebook records. 

Of the articles listed below, the pieces that are desirable, but 
not essential to good work are marked (*). The cupboard may be 
fashioned by the older students from boxes. The cost of sandpaper, 
paint and stain need not exceed one dollar. 

Finish of box, cupboard, paint, stain, etc - $1.00 

Mixing bowl, earthenware, large, 2 quarts.. 25 

Mixing bowl, earthenware, 1 pint size .10 

*Bread board - -25 

Utensil plate, tin 10 

Pieplate, agate , -10 

Dover beater -- 15 

*"Wire whip — - -10 

Wooden spoon --. 10 

Case knife - 10 

Case fork -10 

**Palette knife -20 

Vegetable knife 20 

Bread knife — „,.....,-...- :,r.r-r rr-r-rr-r. - ,.==-..-' - -30 



106 HOME ECONOMICS 

Table spoon, German silver, 1.: 05 

Dessert spoon, German silver, 1 05 

Tea spoon, German silver, 2 05 

Measuring cup, glass 10 

Measuring cup, tin 05 

Sauce pan, %-pint size 10 

Sauce pan, 2-quart size 30 

Frying pan, iron, small 10 

Sifter ..- 05 

Muffin pan, set of six, tin 05 

Bread tin, small 05 

*Lemon squeezer, glass 10 

Cork screw 05 

Baking dish, 1-pint size 10 

Tea strainer 05 

*Colander .15 

Dish pan 25 

Draining pan 10 

*Tea kettle 50 

Asbestos mat - - 05 

Oven, 12-inch square interior dimension 1.00 

Vegetable and desk brushes, 2 10 

Small china plate, 2 .20 

Cup and saucer - .10 

Sherbet glass , 10 

Small odd dishes : 

Salt shaker .__ 10 

Pepper shaker 10 

Tray 15 

*Cream pitcher 10 

*Sugar bowl 15 

Jelly glasses, with cover for supplies, 6.... 15 

Fruit jars, with covers for supplies 30 

Labels (box) 10 

Towels, flour sacks, 3 

Dish cloth, crash, 2 

Scissors .50 

Yardstick 05 

Tape 10 

Thimble 25 

Needles 25 

Emery bag .10 



HOME ECONOMICS 107 

Pins : : 10 

Muslin _ 50 

Thread and yarn 25 

Total : $10.05 

The prices given are those of several years ago. If the school 
undertakes the serving of a hot dish with the school lunch there 
must be additional equipment That given herewith is adequate for 
the group lesson with small quantity of food materials. 

***The cost of stove is not given. In some schools the heating 
stove of the schoolroom will answer the purpose. The purchase of 
an oil stove must be arranged for. 

Note : A utensil plate is a cake pan with vertical sides. It 
is used as a tray for soiled dishes — that they may not be put 
directly upon- the table. The soiled utensil plate is much more 
easily cared for than the soiled table top. Again the use of the 
utensil plate encourages neatness in the keeping together of soiled 
dishes. 

REFERENCE BOOKS 

Books listed below Avill be found especially valuable to the 
teacher who is, for the first time, attempting to teach housekeeping 
lessons. 

There are other excellent texts quite as desirable and in which 
subject matter is not too far removed from the teacher without 
special training, and yet it is sufficiently complete to answer many 
of the questions that will arise. 

1. '' Elements of the I'heor^^ and Practice of Cookery." Re- 
vised. Williams & Fisher. Publishers, Macmillan Company. 

2. "The Boston Cooking School Cook Book," Fannie Merritt 
Farmer. Publishers, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston. 

3. "Home and School Sewing," Teachers' Edition, Frances 
Patton. Publisher, Newson & Co., New York. 

4. "Sewing Tablets," by Margaret J. Blair. Webb Publish- 
ing Co., St. Paul, Minn. Seven tablets in the series at 50 cents each. 

5. "Shelter and Clothing," Kinne and Cooley. Macmillan 
Company. 



*Equipment desirable, but not essential. , 

**Kn)fe with flexible blade. 

***The oil stove, if given the same care as the sitting- room lamp, will be 
as free from smoking. 



108 



HOME ECONOMICS 



6, "Primary Nursing- Studies," Aikin. W. B. Saunders. 

List of publications for free distribution and for sale may be 
obtained from State Senator or Congressman. 

The Secretary of State Board of Health, with offices at Denver, 
will, upon request, furnish bulletins of interest along sanitary lines. 

Bulletins issued by the Boys' and Girls' Clubs give detailed 
directions for part of the work outlined. 

outline of lesson 
Introductory. 

Direction for keeping notebook account of value of supplies 
used. Let students become acquainted with equipment. 
Hygiene. 

Air in its relation to life. Meaning of term ventilation. How 
ventilation of schoolroom may be most satisfactorily 
effected. Relation of cellar air to air of house. Signifi- 
cance. Use of thermometer. How to resuscitate one who 
has fainted or has been overcome with gas. 
Heating and Lighting. ■ 

(a) Heating. Relation of air to fire. Understand con- 
struction and management of school stove. Compare 
it, in its parts, with the stove at home. Importance 
of moisture in the air in winter.' 

(b) Lighting. Understand construction and care of 
lamps. Cause of dim and smoky flames. Give same 
care to kerosene oil stoves that is required by parlor 
lamp and as good results will be obtained. How best 
"put out" fire. Care of scalds. Care of frost bites. 

Water Supply and Waste Disposal. ■ , 

(a) Water Supply. Water one of the very common car- 
riers of disease. Nature and source of harmful im- 
purities found in M^ater. How made safe for drinking. 
Why we should drink much water. 

(b) Waste Disposal. The disposal of sewage and garbage. 
The fiy as a carrier of disease. 

Lessons Preparatory to Work in Cooking. 

Rules for personal cleanliness. 
Directions for measuring and table of measures. 
Begin a table of comparisons between weights and measures, 
this to be added to throughout the year ; e. g., one pound 



HOME ECONOMICS ^109 

flour — about four cupfuls, etc.; juice of lemon — three 
tablespoonfuls. 

Discuss principal methods of cooking. 

Table of abbreviations. Hints on how to work. Put in order 
equipment and supplies. In the care of dishes, towels, 
cloths, stove and sink and woodwork, and removing of 
stains, observe carefully the directions given in Williams 
& Fisher, Chapter 1, Section 4. There can be but the 
beginning of such work in this lesson. Throughout the 
course there should be exercised special care as to cleanli- 
ness of equipment, and in the manner of working. Obvi- 
ously, directions for cleaning methods cannot be given in 
one lesson. These must be scattered throughout the year. 

COOKERY 

For direction in the preparation of foods the teacher is referred 
to ''The' Boston Cooking School Cook Book" and "Elements of the 
Theory and Practice of Cookery." It is suggested that the latter 
text be referred to for direction of the ''why" of the practices, but 
that the cook book be looked to for the recipes. Each of the two 
books is indexed sufficiently to be very usable. 

Again it is suggested that for most of dishes prepared half the 
proportion of ingredients named be used. This will, in most cases, 
be sufficient for the small school to sample. 

Preparation of Breakfast Dishes. 
Table Setting and Serving. 

(See directions and cut given in Girls' Cooking Club 
Bulletin.) 
Fruits. 

Food value. Preparation and serving of fresh fruits. 
Dried fruits. Illustrate the preparation and serving 
of oranges, apple sauce, stewed and baked prunes. 
*Food Preservation. 

Preservation of vegetables by drying. Compare dried 
sweet corn, that was cooked before drying, with that 
which was dried uncooked. 
Canning Fruit and Jelly Making. — Bottled fruit juices. 
Cereal Foods. 

Characteristics of starch food. General directions for 
cooking cereals. Cream of wheat steamed. Boiled 
rice. 



110 HOME ECONOMICS 

Eggs. 

Test for freshness. Contrast time and methods of cooking 

with that of cereals. 
Hard-cooked egg. Fried egg. Poached egg. 
Scrambled Egg and Bacon. 

Give special care in the preparation of scrambled eggs, 
that they may be light and fluffy. The bacon should 
be evenly browned. 

Preparation and Serving of Breakfast for Two. 

Apple Sauce 

Cream of "Wheat 

Scrambled Eggs Bacon 

Toast Coffee 

Have pupils arrange as home-work other combinations of 
breakfast dishes. 

Preparation op Supper Dishes. 
Potato. 

Rules for preparation and cooking : Boiled potato, mashed 
potato. 

Potato on half-shell. 

Reasons for steaming sweet potatoes instead of boiling. 
Milk. 

Composition. Reason for especial care. 

Why to be taken as food, not as a beverage. 

Pasteurization of milk. 

Preparation of junket custard. Cottage cheese. 

Cheese. 

Composition. Manufacture. General rule for cooking of 
cheese. Escalloped macaroni and cheese. Rice and 
cheese. 

Milk and Egg Dishes. — Custards. 
Boiled custard. Baked custai-d. 

Preparation op White Sauce. — Cream Gravy. 

Ways to prevent the lumping of flour in the thickening of milk. 

Dishes prepared. Eggs a la goldenrod. Creamed dried beef. 

Emphasize the wide range of use for white sauce in cooking, 

i. e., in the preparation of creamed and escalloped dishes 

and in the preparation of cream soup. 



home economics 111 

Vegetables. 

Importance of leaf vegetables in the diet, such as cabbage and 

lettuce. 
The preparation and cooking. 
Directions for cooking strong-juiced vegetables; for cooking 

sweet-juiced vegetables. i 

Much attention to vegetable cookery. 
Cooking of dried vegetables. 

Milk and Vegetables Combined. 

Creamed potatoes. Cream of potato soup. 
Typical of creamed vegetables and cream soups. 

Preparation and Serving of Supper. 

Creamed Dried Beef 

Baked Potato 

Bread and Butter Marmalade 

Tea 

Custard 

Doughs and Batters. — Use of wheat-saving cereals in some of 
recipes. 
Pour Batter. 

Use of baking powder, or soda and sour milk, for leaven- 
ing. 
Griddle cakes. 
Drop Batter. 

Muffins — Use ''Twin Mountain" recipe. Steamed pud- 
dings. 
Soft Dough. - 

Baking powder biscuit. 

Fruit short cake — use of sliced oranges for filling. 
Stiff Dough. 
■ Yeast as the leavening agent. Separation of gluten ball 
from flour. Action of j^east plant. .Conditions affect- 
ing growth. 
Changes in bread in the baking. 

Food values. Use for stale bread. In the making of bread 
the teacher should use dried yeast instead of the com- 
pressed yeast. Also it would be well to start some 
"hop" yeast a week or two before beginning the 



112 



HOME ECONOMICS 



br3ad lesson. Demonstration by teacher to be applied 
by student at home. 
Macaroni and Other Flour Pastes. 

Serve as a vegetable with tomato sauce. 

Meat, Cook':ry. 

Meat. Structure. Selection. Cuts. Care. 

f omposition as affected by heat. 

booking method employed in extracting juices. 

Preparation of broth. 

Broth served with croutons, on invalid tray. 
/ I Broiled Steak. 

Cooking method employed that shall keep in juices. 

Serve on hot platter. 

Use of parsley as garnish. ' 

Broiled Ham. Bacon. 

Broiled ham with tomato sauce. 
The use of legumes, nuts and cheese in meat substitute dishes. 

SH Cookery. 

Creamed Codfish. 

Codfish balls. 
Steamed Salt Mackerel ivith Egg Sauce or Drawn Butter 

Sauce. 
Attractive and PalataMe Dishes Prepared from '^Left-Overs." 

Dinner Menus. 

Set table for dinner. 

Discuss combination of dinner dishes, rules for table setting 

and serving. 
Preparation of dinner. What foods m^et the requirements of 

the very small child, of the girl and boy in school, of the 

parent. 

Ice Cream. 

Mason jar or baking powder can may be used for freezer. 
Rules for packing and freezing. 
Ice cream. 

Lemon ice served in lemon rind to invalid. 
Christmas Candy and Nuts. 

Sugar. Food Value. Varieties. Effect of Heat and, Acids 
on Sugar. 
Peanut brittle. Talfy. Salted nuts. 



home economics 113 

Miscellaneous. 

Preparation of dishes suitable for light refreshments. 
Chocolate and Sandwiches. ; 

Tea and Marguerites. 
• Coffee and Cheese Wafers. 
Salads and Salad Dressing. 

General rules to be observed in the preparation and serv- 
ing of salads. Boiled dressing. Cold slaw. 
Picnic Luncheon. 

Plans for suitable picnic lunches discussed. If possible, 
plan and give a ' ' Last Day of School ' ' picnic Apply 
in the preparation of school lunches. 

LESSONS IN SEWING 

The sewing should include the application of the sewing 
stitches to articles to find immediate use in the school room or in 
the home. 

Preparatory Lesson. 

Correct way of holding the scissors for cutting. Practice in 
cutting paper. Cut fringed paper to be used later in 
school decoration for some special event. Tell story of 
the origin of scissors and of other pieces of equipment. 
Position while sewing. Drill in the method of threading 
needle, also in making a knot. Correct use of thimble. 
Thimble drill. Fold hem in paper. 
Eve7i and Uneven Basting Applied to Tea Toivels. 
Folding and Basting Hems. 

Use tape measure in measuring and gauging for hem. 
Apply in the folding and basting of hem on school 
curtains. Discuss suitability of various materials for 
curtains. 
N apery Hem. 

Apply in the hemming of table linen for some of the homes. 
Running Stitch, Comhination Stitch, and Overhanding. 

Apply in the making of ''Holders" to be used in handling 
hot utensils in cooking lessons. 
Bach Stitching. 

May take the place of the sewing machine stitching where 
durability is especially desired. Note and correct mis- 
takes that occur. Compare with the half-back stitch. 
and back stitch, and three running stitches. 



114 HOME ECONOMICS 

Running Stitching. 

After tryirlg on small square of muslin, apply in darning 
worn places on a garment. Apply the weaving stitch 
in the darning of stocking. 

Bottonholes and Sewing on Buttons, Hooks, Eyes and Eyelet- 
Snaps. 

Mending a Three-Corner ed Tear. 

Sewing on Lace. 

Apply stitches given in earlier lessons in the sewing of a 
kitchen apron suitable for wear in cooking lessons. In addition to 
review there will be advanced work in the gathering and putting 
on of band. 

Sewing lessons may be further applied in the patching of gar- 
ments brought from home, in the making of school bags, pencil 
cases, waste paper bags and Christmas gifts. Much of this will be 
voluntarily worked in as "Busy Work" by the girls. Other hand 
work that is acceptable is crocheting and braiding of rugs. 

Boys should be able to make use of some sewing stitches in the 
mending of grain sacks and in mending harness, and in making a 
bag for marbles. 

Clothing. 

Very elementary textile study. Develop such facts as ''weight" 
and ' ' warmth ' ' are not synonymous, and that clothing may 
serve as "a net to catch air." Compare in warmth the 
loosely and tightly woven woolen. 

Talk over with the girls and boys suitability of clothing to 
season, occasion and occupation. Bring out the truth that 
clothing to serve the purpose of adornment need not be 
much frilled and "fussy" in fashion. Cost studies. 

Laundry Lessons. 

The nature of some of the laundry reagents — as starches, blu- 
ings, washing powders and soaps. Effect of acids and 
alkali on wool, silk, cotton and linen. i 

See Manual on Laundry Practice. 

Such manuals may be secured at nominal cost. 

Practice in Removing Stains. 

Laundry Processes. 

The ' ' why ' ' of thorough rinsing of clothes before and after 
bluing; of long cooking of starch, of glue in starch; 



HOME ECONOMICS 115 

of care in shaking out of clothes before hanging on the 
line, and of folding in taking down clothes. 

The special care to be given in the washing of woolens with 
the reasons for such precautions. 

Home-made Soap 

Home Nursing. 

The Sick Boom. 

The screening of light, and airing of sick room. 
How to make a bed correctly. How to change bed linen 
with patient lying in bed. The ' ' nevers ' ' that should 
unquestionably be observed in caring for the sick. 

Care of Convalescing Patient. 

Care of the hair, the teeth, and the mouth. 

Bathing. 
First Aid to Injured. 

Bandages and bandaging. Care of bruises. 

How to remove foreign bodies from the eye, ear, nose and 
throat. 

Shelter. 

Apply facts developed in discussion to the schoolroom insofar 
as feasible. 

House Management. 

Demonstrate in the care of school equipment, the schoolroom 

and door yard. 
Account keeping. Inventory. Extermination of household 
pests. 

CORRELATION 

There is afforded great wealth of opportunity for the correla- 
tion of Household Arts with other subject matter offered in the 
curriculum. In connection with geography may be given emphasis 
to source and manufacture of the products used locally. The 
spelling lesson may well include such words as measuring, sand- 
wich, macaroni, scalloped, escalloped, leavening. Computation of 
the cost of the materials used in the cooking lesson and the division 
of the recipes are appropriate exercises in arithmetic. The lan- 
guage lesson may reproduce in original form the fascinating story 
of the difficulties under which the potato was introduced into 
France, or, again, there may be the writing of the letter to the 
Department of Agriculture for the bulletin on Food for the Child, 
or that dealing with Farm Mechanics. 



116 HOME ECONOMICS 

THE HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN THE GRADES 

Seventy-five out of every liunclred children in the United 
States fail to reach the high school. Within a few years after 
graduation from the grades the majority of the girls marry. Fac- 
ing this fact, it is pertinent that we ask ourselves what the school 
can do that will last over the intervening wage-earning days and 
what it can offer as an incentive toward better preparation for 
home making. 

We are coming to think of the school as an extension of the 
home and to believe that if we are to secure the fullest benefits 
from what we are pleased to call Education, we must bring life 
into education so that it will be problem solving as well as infor- 
mational and liberalizing. Concrete suggestions are given, there- 
fore, to show how organization for the teaching of housekeeping 
practices throughout the grades may, to a degree, accomplish that 
aim. 

The general aim in giving the home training work is, ob- 
viously, to develop insight into what constitutes good home con- 
ditions. And in the upper grades the girl will be found to be 
most responsive to stimuli, intensely ambitious, open minded, and 
highly imaginative. 

The concrete end in view is the development of manual dex. 
terity to the point of habit. While in the first four grades we 
look for neatness in the finished product we do not require ac- 
curacy in a high degree. Nor are we so concerned that the girls 
know the ''why." In the four upper grades there is the begin- 
ning of emphasis on the reason for certain procedure. A valuable 
result that follows the acquisition of dexterity is the greater self 
reliance that comes from the consciousness ©f ability to do things 
well. It must be remembered, too, that manual operationts 
thoughtfully carried on have value in mental training. 

, Little work of experimental nature should be given in the 
grades. There is danger of dulling the -edge of interest by the 
premature introdi/.ction of principles and processes. 

Save in the four upper grades the subject matter outlined 
need not occupy a special period of the schedule. It may better 
be an intimate part of the subject matter presented under the 
titles : Geography, History, English, Stories, etc. That the house- 
keeping interests are discussed is but to give emphasis to the pos- 
sibilities in this direction, fn the fifth and sixth grades one forty- 



HOME ECONOMICS 117 

five minute period a week to be given regularly to .work outlined 
will be adequate. 

. OUTLINE FOR STUDY 

First Grade 
The play house affords abundant freedom of expression by 
the child. And the interest surrounding the play house and the 
dolls and toys helps to bridge the gap between the home and the 
school. 

Second Grade 
Help the child to interpret her surroundings. Discover ex- 
planations for the differences in immediate surroundings of the 
farm and town homes, food habits and household practices. 

Third Grade 
Contrast the present home life with that of the people who 
live more primitively, as the Eskimo and the Indian. Repeat some 
of the experiences of primitive peoples. Methods of cooking. 
Materials used for clothing and how determined. Idea of orna- 
ment. Reproduce houses of people studied. 

Fourth Grade 

Theme. — Colonial Life. 

If possible, prepare in group some of the food dishes of the 
colonial period. Contrast methods of heating and lighting with 
those of today. Dip candles, make soap. Care of brass and cop- 
per. Reproduce other housekeeping practices. 

Fifth Grade 
Housekeeping. — Table setting and reasons for what is desig- 
nated as table manners. Dish washing. Ventilation. Cleaning 
practices. Care, order and arrangement of cupboards. Bed mak- 
ing. Care of house plants. Personal hygiene, particularly 
stressed. First Aid. Extermination of household pests. 

Sixth Grade 
The beginning of hand sewing. Stitches to be applied on 
articles for use — dust cloths, hemming towels, Christmas gifts. 

Here introduce one of two interesting problems, such as the 
making of a cooking apron for the next year. Elementary study 
of textiles. 

■ Seventh Grade 
Cooking. — All cooking exercises to center about the cooking 



118 HOME ECONOMICS 

and serving of breakfas-ts, dinners, and suppers. At the conclu- 
sion of the year of cooking lessons the student should be able to 
prepare many basic dishes independently of books and notes. 
And in the preparation of more complex dishes, to follow recipes 
intelligently. Invariable phases of the lessons in cooking should 
be selection, purchase and care of food, proper combinations and 
proper selection as to kind and amounts for the individual mem- 
bers of a fairly typical family. Housekeeping practices, too, are 
taught insofar as they are an inseparable part of good labora- 
tory practice and applicable in the upkeep of the school room and 
school laboratory. In the purchase and care of supplies and 
housekeeping equipment used in the laboratory, it is highly de- 
sirable that the student be conferred with. Such actual lessons in 
purchasing, account keeping, upkeep, storage and the inventory 
are of infinitely more value than text-book study of the topics 
named. The war-time lessons of thrift and conservation should 
be guarded zealously. 

Eighth Grade 
The use of the commercial pattern in cutting. Sewing 
stitches and machine sewing necessary to the care and repair of 
clothing and the fashioning of a simple garment. Consideration 
of color and design in the selection of clothes. Cleansing textile 
fabrics. Laundering. How to combat clothing pests. Household 
linens, purchase and sewing. Inventory of household textiles, 

L^^ORATORY PERIODS 

Any plan calling for a large amount of time, of necessity, in- 
volves adjustment of class schedules and co-operative effort on the 
part of teachers of other subjects. Ordinarily where the work is 
given at all, a double period (ninety minutes) a week is allowed. 
In that time it is impossible to complete in one period many of 
the laboratory processes regarded as indispensable, and unless the 
double period on two successive days can be arranged for, some 
of the valuable lessons must be omitted. The interval of a week 
between lessons is a destructive length of time. If for the seventh 
and eighth grades, an entire afternoon session once a week is al- 
lowed, a high grade of accomplishment is possible. And if the 
work in the housekeeping arts is rated at its true value, instead 
of the fictitious value we are accustomed to assign to it, that time 
is not an unreasonable allowance in proportion to the amount now 
given through the years to each of the other subjects in the cur- 
riculum — subjects no more essential in the training for citizen- 
ship. 



HOME ECONOMICS 119 

It is not possible to say that in all schools alike there should 
be adopted in its entirety a fixed course of study. Conditions de- 
termine the kind and amount of work given. But it has seemed 
desirable to give a definite plan to "vary from." 

Whatever the vsrork in kind and amount, the results should 
clearly show the working out of definite and worthy aims in the 
mind of the teacher. The student should be conscious of having 
accomplished a definite aim that was clearly in her mind at the 
outset. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Where work has been given to the limited extent indicated in 
the foregoing plan, a text book can scarcely be used. From 
among the texts and reference books given in the outline for High 
Schools there may be selected a very usable library. 

THE HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 

At the outset it should be definitely understood that the out- 
line of work presented herewith is not with the purpose of prep- 
aration of the girl for college courses in Home Economics. Rather 
is it the aim to help the girl to qualify for the vocation in which 
the overwhelming majority of girls will be ultimately engaged. 
The household arts subjects we have come to recognize as rational 
elements in the education of girls. And if these elements do in 
turn receive rational treatment making them intellectually, soci- 
ally and economically worth while, the Household Arts course will 
articulate with the college and with life equally well. It is with 
this end in view — that of stating definitely the nature of subject 
matter and methods suitably employed — that the material to fol- 
low has been prepared. 

Quotation from the report by the Committee Upon Articula- 
tion of the High School and College adopted by the Secondary 
Department of the National Education Association, July 11, 1911, 
will explain how there came to be selected the special academic 
units, together with the units in Household Arts given as the 
"suggested requirements" in the tentative plans noAV submitted. 
The quotation just referred to, is as follows : 

"Your committee recommends the adoption of the following 
definition of a well-planned high school course : 

"1. The quantitative requirement should be fifteen units. 

"2. Every high school course should include at least three 
units of English, one unit of social science (including history), 
and one unit of natural science. 



120 HOME ECONOMICS 

"3. Every high school course should include the completion 
of two majors of three units each, and one minor of two units, 
and one of the majors should be English. 

''4. The requirement in mathematics and in foreign lan- 
guage should not exceed two units of mathematics and two units 
of one language other than English. 

"5. Of the total fifteen units, not less than eleven should 
consist of English, foreign language, mathematics, social science 
(including history), natural science, or other work conducted by 
recitations and home study. The other four units should he left as 
a margin to be used for additional academic work or for mechanic 
arts, household science, commercial work, and any other kind of 
work that the best interests of the student appear to require. 

''We recommend that section 4 of the definition of a well- 
planned high school course be supplemented by the following ad- 
ditional statement: 4. (a) In the place of either two units of 
mathematics or two units of a foreign language, the substitution, 
under proper supervision, should be allowed of two units, con- 
sisting of a second unit of social science (including history), and 
a second unit of natural science. In other words, there should be 
allowed, under proper supervision, the selection of four units from 
the following: 

"1. Two units of one foreign language. 

"2. Two units of mathematics. 

"3. Two units consisting of a second unit of social science 
and a second unit of natural science." 

In the planning of the Household Arts course, then, the con- 
tributing subjects that go to make up the "margin of four units," 
deal Avith food, clothing and shelter, and house management. In 
the distribution of this home training subject matter, as in the 
distribution of subject designated as the liberal arts, it is not to 
be expected that we shall all of us agree. For example, in the lib- 
eral arts subjects, some of us would advocate that more time be 
devoted to the study of history, believing that through the look- 
ing backward to "see the direction of one's way," the girl will 
more fully appreciate and enjoy the advantages of her place in 
history. Others maintain that high ideals of culture and social 
service may best be gained through more intensive study of so- 
cial science. Difference of opinion also prevails as to whether 
a keener language sense may be developed through the study of 
Latin and English, or through the more intensive study of English 
alone. And so in the plan for Household Arts training, while we. 



HOME ECONOMICS 121 

all of us have the same end in view, that of the socialization of the 
girl, we shall, many of ns, both because of difference in local com- 
munity needs, its facilities for instruction, and difference in opin- 
ion as to the pedagogical method to be employed, find it necessary 
to vary from the plans submitted. After all, it is not so essential 
that we all adopt tli,e same definition, as that we do in the selec- 
tion of subject matter, and in the method of presentation, have 
specific, as well as general aims in view — :aims that are worthy. 

General aims in the training of the girl we have well in mind. 
Mention will be made of three specific aims that should stand out 
boldly in the high school teaching. 

The first is that of securing knowledge fundamental to ef- 
ficient house management and skill in performing household tasks. 
Success in the accomplishment of this aim will be measured by in- 
dependence and foresight in work, and economy in the use of 
materials, time and effort. Inseparable features will be cleanli- 
ness and orderliness. If the accomplishment has become a vital 
part of the girl's life it will be refiected in a visible way in her 
out-of-class-room habits as well. 

The public has clamored for work that is "practical," and 
some have attempted to make that demand the one specific aim. 
Conceptions vary, as to what is "practical domestic science." In 
one locality, the tendency has been to regard the work of the 
classes in foods and cookery and in textiles, as purely mechanical. 
The end of all ambition is to make bread or to sew a dress, as the 
case may be. In another, the aim has been to require that the 
Household Arts classes serve local convenience rather than edu- 
cational needs, and the class in foods and cookery becomes a cater- 
ing agent, giving itself a repetition in work for the convenience 
of a lunch room. The class in textiles serves to replenish the 
wardrobe of the students enrolled. To be sure, it is a laudable 
ambition to turn one's learning to good account, but the im- 
mediate product should be an incidental part of the class work 
rather than the end. Still another school devotes itself to the 
abstract setting forth of theories. Again, in the town of exces- 
sive social inclination, the whims and fancies of the community 
may direct the household arts activity. While it is desirable, in- 
deed, most desirable, that the work in household arts should meet 
the community need, yet, in our eagerness to set up as one of the 
specific aims "making the work practical," it must be kept in 
mind that the vital consideration i.s the girl, and the effect of the 
work upon her, that is of great community concern. 



122 HOME ECONOMICS 

A second specific aim is that of helping the girl to establish 
standards. The common basis on which rests a desirable stand- 
ard takes into account appreciation of simplicity, quality and jus- 
tice. In an age which some one has designated as the day of ''mil- 
lions for display, but not one cent for comfort," it is timely that 
simplicity and quality receive special emphasis. At a time, too, 
when we are given to running confusedly about on the surface 
of things, there is need to give greater care to insistence upon 
thoroughness and genuineness. Justice takes into account con- 
sideration for others, co-operation through team work and meas- 
uring up to responsibility. This awakening of the sense of social 
consciousness should find frequent application in the Household 
Arts curriculum. 

A most important consideration is that of adopting methods 
suited to the ability of the student. Where household arts work 
is offered in the elementary grades, there, obviously, it is not to 
be expected that the constructive work be finished and accurate. 
As the student advances in years and ability, accuracy receives 
stronger emphasis and work is performed that is technically 
worth while. In the work of the high school, there is added to 
this stress of the "how," opportunity for the development of 
reasoning powers and judgment through the working out of the 
"why" of the principles and processes involved in laboratory 
practices. Work that is truly educational will give skill in the 
treatment of materials and equipment, and useful adaptation of 
the same. Work that is truly educational will lead the girl to 
follow up the details of a process in logical order, helping her to 
see a reason for every step and to eliminate the useless steps. A 
precaution to be taken by the teacher is to not go beyond the 
depth of the student or to touch superficially too many lines. Far 
better is it to train in independent thinking along fewer lines. 
Contrary to current_opinion there are not required as a result of 
her training, more costly materials and equipment for the home 
application of the knowledge and skill gained. Rather does it 
mean that she has acquired increased abilitj^ in adapting to its 
best possible use, the everyday means at hand. Her ability should 
make possible a hundred per cent, increase in the attractiveness 
and palatability of the square meal without increasing the cost. 
It should mean the cutting down of time and energy ordinarily 
expended in housekeeping routine through the introduction of im- 
proved methods of manipulation and improved arrangement of 
working equipment. 



HOME ECONOMICS 123 

Eelated and non-vocational subjects given as "required" will 
supply the background necessary to relate the girls' interests to 
those of the larger world, to give artistic appreciation and to aid 
in interpreting technical subject matter. It should mean that her 
skill in selection, in design and in execution should cut down the 
cost of clothing. These are a few of the possible accomplishments 
for the girl of today. 

THE HOUSEHOLD ARTS COURSE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
Tentative Plan No. I 

Suggested requirements : Units 

English and Literature 3 3 

Foreign Language 2 2 

Social Science, including History — : 2 1 

or 

Mathematics 1 2 

Science 3 3 

Household Arts - --.. 4 4 

Schedule suggesting distribution of household arts subjects 

and their science pre-requisites (Pre-requisites checked) : 

Ninth Grade 

First Semester — Units 

Biology -• %* 

Textiles and Garment Making — 1/2 

Second Semester — 

Freehand Drawing and Design 1/, 

Foods and Cookery i^ 

Tenth Oracle 
First Semester — Units 

Foods and Cookery i/^ 

Second Semester — 

Physiology (Personal Hygiene, First Aid, Home 

Nursing, and Child Care) I/2* 

Textiles and Dressmaking i/^ 

Eleventh Grade 

First Semester— Units 

Physics .- : %* 

Design Applied to Costume and the House..... i/^ 

Second Semester — 

Physics 1/2 

The House % 



124 HOME ECONOMICS 

Twelfth Grade Units 

Chemistry throughout the year.. 1 

First Semester — 

Advanced Dressmaking 3^ 

Second Semester- 
Elementary Dietetics and Planning and Serving of 
Meals _ 1/2 

In consideration of subjects bearing on foods, shelter and 
clothing, there should be kept in mind the economics, hygienic and 
aesthetic aspects. 

Tentative Plan No. II. 

Suggested requirements and distribution of science pre-requi- 
sites are the same as those indicated in Tentative Plan I. 

Schedule suggesting the distribution of household arts subjects : 

Ninth Grade 
First Semester — Units 

Textiles and Garment-making I/2 

Second Semester — 

Freehand Drawing and Design % 

Tenth Grade 
First Semester — Units 

Foods and Cookery :....: ^2 

Second Semester — 

Design 14 

Eleventh Grade 
First Semester — Units 

Textiles and Dressmaking '. % 

Second Semester — 

Costume Design and Dressmaking i/^ 

Tivelfth Grade 
First Semester — Units 

The Planning and Serving of Meals % 

Second Semester — 

The House , i/^ 

The- amount of time allowed for Design is in recognition of the 
urgent need of offering to the girl in the high school this appeal to 
the agstlietic side of her nature at a time when she is most suscept- 
ible to such an appeal. The provision for giving the work in daily 
recitations, as is customary in the teaching of algebra and Latin, 



HOME ECONOMICS 126 

and, the giving of all laboratory courses in double periods (90 
minutes) and daily, as indicated in the plans set forth above, offers 
the only possible means for securing worth-while results. 

THE CONTENT OF HOUSEHOLD ARTS SUBJECTS 

A graphic statement of the scope of the Household Arts course 
is expressed in the syllabus of Home Economics published by the 
American Home Economics Association at Baltimore, Maryland. 
That syllabus suggests how rich and varied may be the content of 
such courses. 

A brief synopsis of the contents of each of the Household Arts 
courses named in the tentative plans follows : 

Textiles and Garment-making includes the making of simple 
muslin and cotton garments, demonstrating the elements of hand- 
and machine-sewing. Orderliness^ neatness, cleanliness and accu- 
racy in execution, characterize the work. Elementary study of 
textiles and suitability of stitches to material is an accompanying 
feature. 

Textiles and Dressmaking. Elementary drafting, or, the relat- 
ing of measures to the commercial pattern and use in the making 
of a cotton dress. 

Advanced Dressmaking. Drafting, design and art needlework 
applied in the making of a simple wool dress. Re-making, care and 
repair of clothing. The further consideration of line and color in 
the selection of the ready-made garment. 

Foods and Cookery. The selection of food ; source ; manufac- 
ture; economic value; knowledge of the effect of heat, cold or 
fermentation upon the composition of foods insofar as it will greatly 
influence the preparation of food for the table ; methods of food 
preparation that are fundamental in cookery with emphasis on 
technique; and the working out of the ''why" of the principles, 
and consideration of uses and relative values of various types of 
cooking apparatus. 

Elementary Dietetics and the Planning and Serving of Meals. 
Quality and quantity of food adequate for nutrition and health. 
Desirable combinations of foods for meal service. Especial atten- 
tion given to food for the child. Excellence in cooking, attractivcr 
ness, yet simplicity in service, and cost of food prepared are 
invariable features of the work. 

The House. The site, surroundings, household ventilation, 
heating and lighting of the house; the water supply; the disposal 



126 HOME ECONOMICS 

of wastes; the relation of the household to health organizations; 
construction of the house ; house plans suited to typical community 
conditions; practice in drawing skeleton plans; consideration of 
furnishing from a sanitary and artistic standpoint; standards of 
living. 

Freehand Drawing and Design. Study of freehand drawing 
as a basis for work in designing. Drawing of plant forms using 
the same design motifs. Principles of perspective and object draw- 
ing. Principles of design and simple problems as applied to 
clothing and the house. 

Design. Comparison of good and bad designs for house fur- 
nishings, and textiles for home use. Practical application of design 
in costume and in the house. 

TEXT BOOKS FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOf^ 

Food. 

Authors, Williams and Fisher; title, Theory and Practice of 
Cookery; publisher, Macmillan; $1.00. 

Author, Kinneand Cooley ; title, Food and Household Manage- 
ment; publisher, Macmillan; $1.10. 

Author, M. S. Rose; title. Feeding the Family; publisher, 
Macmillan ; $2.10. 

Author, Farmer; title, Boston Cooking School Cook Book; 
publishers, Little, Brown & Co., Boston ; $2.00. 

Clothing. 

Authors, Kinne and Cooley; title, Shelter and Clothing; pub- 
lisher, Macmillan ; $1.25. 

Author, Hasluck ; title, Sewing Machines : Their Construction, 
Adjustment and Repair; publishers, Cassell & Co., Ltd., 
New York; 60c. 

Author, Laura I. Baldt; title. Clothing for Women; publishers, 
Lippincott & Co. 

Shelter. 

See List of Reference Books. 

House Management. 

Author, Child; title. The Efficient Kitchen; publisher, Robert 
M. McBride Co., N. Y. ; $1.25. 

Authors, Maxwell and Pope; title. Practical Nursing; pub- 
lisher, Putnam, N. Y. ; $2.00. 

Author, Balderston; title. Laundering; 1224 Cherry Street, 
Philadelphia; $1.25. 
or 



HOME ECONOMICS 127 

Author, Aikens; title, Primary Nursing Studies; publisher, 
W. B. Saunders. 

Periodicals. 

The Journal of Home Economics; American Home Economics 

Assn., 1211 Cathedral Street, Baltimore ; $2.00. 
The Home Beautiful ,- 41 Mount Vernon Street, Boston ; $3'.00. 

reference books for the secondary school 

» 

Food. 

Author, Sherman ; title, Food Products ; publisher, Macmillan ; 
$2.25. 

Author, Snell; title, Elementary Household Chemistry; pub- 
lisher, Macmillan ; $1.25. 

Author, U. S. Food Administration; title. Food and Shelter; 
publishers, Houghton, Mifflin Co., Chicago; 75c. 

Authors, Matteson and Newlands; title, A Laboratory Manual 
of Foods and Cookery; publisher, Macmillan; $1.25. 

Author, Powell; title. Successful Canning and Preserving; 
publisher, Macmillan; $2.00. 

Author, Sherman ; title. The Chemistry of Food and Nutrition ; 
publisher, Macmillan; $1.50. 

Clothing. 

Author, Baldt; title. Clothing for Women; publishers, J. B. 
Lippincott Co., Philadelphia ; $1.25. 

Author, Weed; title. Household Chemistry (Textiles); pub- 
lishers, American Book Co., Chicago; $1.25. 

Author, Patton; title, Home and School Sewing; publishers, 
Newson & Co., N. Y. ; 50c. 
Shelter. 

Author, Robinson ; title, Domestic Architecture ; publisher, 
Macmillan. 

Author, Quinn ; title, Planning and Furnishing the Home ; 
publishers. Harper Bros., Franklin Square, N. Y. 
House Management. 

Author, Taber; title, The Business of the Household; pub- 
lisher, J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia; $2.00. 

THE SCHOOL LUNCH ROOM 

There is a tendency on the part of school authorities to delegate 
to the classes in Domestic Science all responsibility for the schoql 
lunchroom, not realizing that this is misuse of the periods ostensibly 



128 HOME ECONOMICS 

set aside for constructive work in the household arts. This is an 
unfortunate practice from two points of view. Much of the cook- 
ing for the lunchroom is of necessity routine work, and it is a 
psychological truism that ' ' To keep on growing one must meet new 
problems, learning new things, thus developing the powers of 
reasoning and judgment. Any manual labor ceases to be educative 
the moment it becomes thoroughly familiar and automatic." Aside 
from this pedagogical mistake, there is injustice in the proceeding. , 
It is manifestly unfair to require of the teacher of Domestic 
Science the conduct of the lunchroom unless she is proportionately 
relieved of other duties, which is most rarely the case, and, unless 
she is definitely engaged to undertake that work. 

Provision for the school lunch is a highly desirable child- 
welfare movement — one in which all parents and all teachers alike 
should share interest and responsibility. But business-like arrange- 
ment should be made for the satisfactory carrying on of the 
enterprise. Quite as logical is it to expect that the class in physics 
demonstrate the working out of the theory of surface tension by 
removing grease spots from the clothing of the student group, as 
that the Domestic Science class carry on the lunchroom, or again, 
that plumbing repairs and the daily care of the heating plant 
through the school term be made a part of the study of the prin- 
ciples of hydraulics and mechanics. Quite as reasonably might the 
classes in arithmetic express their practicality by taking over the 
business accounting of the school. The class in hygiene, too, could 
perform janitor service and remove the "matter out of place." 
And such a wealth of practical school problems could be supplied 
to the chemistry, botany and biology classes. 

There is a possible and a desirable connection between, the 
Domestic Science class work and the school cafeteria, a connection 
satisfactorily demonstrated in a few schools. It is as follows : The 
classes in food and cookery follow a schedule of lessons logically 
worked out. The lessons are planned independently of the lunch- 
room needs. The lunchroom is cared for in a business-like way, 
under the direction of one specifically employed for that purpose. 
On days when the product of the cookery class will find a place in 
the lunchroom menu, provision is made in advance for this large 
(quantity cookery and the class given credit for the cost of food 
provided. Under such conditions, both enterprises proceed in a 
manner worthy of respect. 



MANUAL TRAININa AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

INTRODUCTION 

It is exceedingly gratifying to school administrators that the 
schools of the nation must be called upon and can be of indispens- 
able service in this great world crisis. 

"What will be the ultimate result of this recognition of school 
efficiency ? ' 

Already school-training has been found efficient beyond general 
prediction. Yet, the prediction is made that school-training will 
be found weak, trivial and formal in the direction of the industrial 
arts. From everywhere comes the call for more expert mechani- 
cians and tradesmen to carry on the work in hand. But the number 
is inadequate. When the schools are appealed to for trained 
mechanicians and tradesmen or , for the immediate organization of 
instruction in these practical arts, their response has always been 
generous, but acknowledgement is often made that they are 
equipped for the training of professional engineers, professional 
agriculturists, professional in everything but not for the training 
of expert workmen. 

If our education is to be democratic in its conception^ it must 
necessarily meet the needs of the vast majority of the nation's 
citizens whose activities are identified with the trades. 

Already it has been hinted at this writing that whatever form 
of military training shall be adopted in this country at the conclu- 
sion of the war, it is quite likely to be accompanied by vocational 
education to the extent of having vocational education the pre- 
dominating feature of the plan. This is in line with President 
Wilson's ideas on the subject and will be an administration 
measure. 

Henceforth, there will be enormous and varied demands laid 
upon the industrial arts departments by the needs of war indus- 
tries, war relief agencies, and by post-war considerations. 

Thus education is helping to win the war. ' 

Never before in the history of our country has education 
received so much attention in government councils as it does today. 
Many government agencies are now involved in shaping the educa- 
tion of our nation into various channels, and people everywhere are 
responding heartily to the cause of universal training that shall 
make for social service. 



130 MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

If our nation is to win in the great industrial and economic 
war which is to follow immediately the war with arms, preparation 
must be made on the basis of efficiency and this should reach all 
lines of endeavor and should find its final attainment through 
education. The final victory along industrial pursuits will go to 
the people whose hands are trained to perform operations in the 
industrial field, and this imposes on the schools the necessity of 
providing industrial and vocational training. 

Present standards and values in education must be changed. 
The schools of the country are now challenged with greater respon- 
sibilities and put to the test as they never have been before. 

A. Types of Instruction. 

According to their aim, sfcope and function, we have today a 
number of educational enterprises that make for skill and industrial 
intelligence from a plane quite limited to a degree which reaches 
the very acme of perfection. Among them are sloyd, manual train- 
ing^ provocational, vocational, industrial, technical, trade school, 

\ 

continuation school, part-time co-operative plan, etc. 

The kind of instruction given depends largely upon its need 
and for whom it is intended, the facilities for carrying on the 
selected type of education, qualifications of teachers and methods 
of administration and supervision, the size of the communities or 
cities where such training is to be given and the amount of the 
time allotted. 

B. Manual Training. 

1. Definition of Manual Training: Manual training is any 
form of instruction that introduces the boy to a series of typical, 
practical problems along industrial lines. 

2. Aim and Scope of Manual Training Work : 

Aims to provide for the needs of children from 12 to 16 years. 

To overcome the isolation which so often exists between school 
and life. 

To teach creative interests and develop creative powers. 

To bring the boys into a more complete contact with life. 

To insure the natural and healthy growth and development of 
our youth. 

To train for the appreciation of all life's activities and the 
development of good citizenship. 

To bridge the gulf between thinking and doing. 

To uncover tastes and ability for vocational work. 

To lay the right foundation for all forms for all productive 
and creative work. 



MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAIj EDUCATION 131 

To embody in its teaching a more strictly vocational trend for 
a broader view of life. 

To touch the life of the boy in his work, play, school and home. 

To give boys to whom book methods of instruction do not 
appeal, an opportunity to find themselves. 

To correlate with other school subjects or academic work and 
must necessarily be cultural as well as vocational. 

a. Elementary Period of Manual Training. 

The elementary period, is that period which follows imme- 
diately the kindergarten or primary period, extending normally 
to about twelve, and embracing the instruction given in the first 
six years of the public school course. The limits, however, of this 
period cannot be definitely fixed. 

The primary aim of manual arts in the lower grades (primary 
and elementary) should continue to be general education. 

In grades one to six not less than one-tenth to one-eighth of the 
present school time should be set aside for elementary handwork. 

Shop work under the direction of a manual training instructor 
may begin with the fifth grade. 

The nature of the work undertaken must of necessity be in 
keeping with the nature and needs of the pupils in hand. 

"Work can be done in thin or soft wood^ paper and cardboard, 
clay, raffia, reed, yarn, etc. 

''The best effect of manual work is seen in the moral power it 
exerts. Bodily occupation is everywhere elevating and healthful, 
and morality and religion are built upon industry." — Clarence 
Franklin Carroll. 

1. Aims and Standards of Instruction in the Elementary 
Period. 

The aim of instruction and choice of subject matter and 
projects in making a curriculum in Manual Training for the ele- 
mentary period should be governed by the following: 

To be essentially informational and developmental in char- 
acter. 

To appeal directly to the instincts and interests of the pupils. 

To assist in the development of right habits of thinking. 

To enable the child to live more efficiently his life of choices. 

To develop the child's senses and powers of observation. 

To establish the more fundamental forms of mental and mus- 
cular co-ordination so essential for efficiency in all forms of future 
work. 



132 MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL, EDUCATION 

To give the boy a sympathetic attitude toward his fellow man 
as worker. 

To develop a large variety of mental and physical forms of 
control which later form a necessary basis for successes in any 'field 
of work. 

To develop the artistic or assthetic sense of the pupil for the 
beautiful. 

To correlate freely and vitalize the work of the regular school 
course. 

b. The Prevocational Period. 

The prevocational period, extending from about twelve to 
sixteen, and embracing normally the work of the last two years of 
the elementary and the first two years of the high school. 

In many school systems this period takes in the division known 
as the ''junior high school," grades seven, eight, and nine. 

1. Aims. 

As a part of the junior high school, the tendency in prevoca- 
tional education is in the direction of offering an acquaintance with 
a variety of industrial occupations as a part of the school program, 
enabling a boy to find himself and helping him somewhat in 
choosing his future occupation. 

It is the "finding and try-out" period in a boy's education 
which is usually coupled with a study of those subjects which will 
give him a broad and necessary foundation for professional and 
technical work. In most cases the vocational work in the higher 
technical trade, vocational and professional school will not begin 
until the prevocational or professional preparatory courses have 
been finished. 

' ' Prevocational work has for one of its purposes the equipping 
of the boy or girl with certain occupational experiences and infor- 
mation of a vocational guidance value. The experiences are gained 
largely by contact with tools, equipment and materials on con- 
structive problems typical in part of actual shop conditions. The 
informational aspect is the resultant of the shop contact, plus 
selected material concerning the various occupations not included 
or gained under experiences." — E.. H. Kodgers, Stout Institute. 

Another aim of the prevocational period, intermediate schools 
and junior high schools, is to bridge the unfortunate gap that has so 
long existed in our educational system between the elementary and 
high schools. 

It retains many of the methods of the elementary period and 



MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 133 

at the same time introduces such methods of the high school as 
departmental instruction. ' 

It aims further to meet the needs of many boys to whom the 
book methods of instruction do not appeal and give them the oppor- 
tunity to develop along lines for which they have natural 
qualifications. This prevocational work should not, however, be 
segregated from other school work, but should be closely correlated 
with it. 

Diversified courses in the prevocational period will undoubtedly 
begin the preparation of lifework for many boys, but it should not 
be assumed that all boys taking such work will go into the indus- 
tries. As a "finding" period this scheme of industrial education 
"should be liberal enough to help those who can continue their 
school work to more wisely choose their courses in higher education, 
and likewise help those who find it necessary to leave school with a 
minimum amount of education to choose their respective occupa- 
tions more intelligently," 

2. Scope of the Work. 

The work of this prevocational, or finding and try-out period, 
should be so organized as to be able to present a number of subjects 
typical of the chief industries not only of the community, but of 
the state, the nation, the world. 

"It is the inherent right of every child that he shall have, 
before he leaves school, an insight into various important industries 
carried on not only in his own community but in the whole world. ' ' 
— Rosana Hunter. 

The introduction of prevocational education can not, of course, 
be the same in every community or school system. The character 
of the work must of necessity be limited. Rural schools can not be 
asked to do the same work as the city school. This would be 
preposterous. 

Hence, the curriculum in small cities must be so reconstructed 
to suit the general school and community conditions. Just as many 
tools, pieces of science apparatus, books, photographs, etc., should 
be available in town or consolidated schools as the teachers could 
use effectively and the community would care to pay for. 

In cities of 10,000 or more the following types of work might 
well be introduced in the course of study: drafting, electricity, 
plumbing, automobile work, brick-laying, tin-smithing, painting, 
mining, printing, blacksmithing, concrete work, machine shop prac- 
tice, pattern-making, shoe-making, cabinet-making, carpentry, 
telegraphy, etc. 



134 MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

Other lines of shop work might be substituted for any of these, 
but such types should be selected which include some of the repre- 
sentative industries of the community or state. 

Thus, we have an educational system with extensive aims 
spread over a variety of experiences for vocational acquaintance as 
contrasted with intensive aims concentrated upon a few subjects 
for the development of skill. In the prevocational, the experimental 
or try-out period, the former aim predominates. 

Prevocational education should be broad enough to provide for 
both boys and girls subjects like salesmanship, office work, show- 
card writing and window-trimming. Housekeeping, catering; 
nursing, dressmaking, etc., should be included for the latter. All 
work should be made as practical as possible and suited to the 
needs of the industries of the community. 

3. Time. 

Adequate work can not be done on 60 or even 90 minutes per 
week. The schools shall never be able to show or satisfy the public 
who demand a dividend on their money, unless they get more time 
for their work. The experimental or try-out period (seventh', 
eighth and ninth grades) should offer, in cities of about 5,000 or 
more, four subjects per year or sixteen subjects in four years. 
The time devoted to each subject should not be less than one and 
one-half hours per day for nine weeks. 

. At the end of the ninth grade, the student, together with the 
instructor and parent, should decide what line of work to select 
and in which to begin training. For the remainder of the high 
school course the student should specialize in the s-ubject which 
he has selected. 

''Children will never be enabled, to use their best powers in 
the service of the nation until school and industry, school and gar- 
den, school and workshop are associated allies in the task of 
education, with the family as third partner. ' ' — Dr. John H, Finley. 

4. Methods of Study and Presentation. 

The methods of presenting the work of prevocational education 
and the nature of the work presented may be classified in general 
into three classes : a, the participation or shop method ; b, the 
observation method ; c, the academic method. 

4a. The Participation or Shop Method. 
' In presenting instruction for boys taking these vocational 
acquaintance courses, ample opportunity should be given to partici- 
pate, so far as possible, in the industry studied. It is only by 
getting actual experience in the fields of work taken up that the 



Manual training and vocational educatio^j 135 

best results may be obtained. As this period aims primarily in 
gaining for the boys reliable information with which to judge the 
industries, a high degree of manipulative skill is not an absolute 
essential, yet good workmanship and care in construction should be 
the rule. 

Actual experience should be given by repeated drill and 
practice upon certain operations that are true and typical to the 
industry under consideration and study if it is to have any voca- 
tional guidance or permanent value for the boy. 

"The operations, however simple, should show the demand for 
standardization of parts in commercial practice, the adoption of 
special shop kinks, the use of jigs and automatic devices, and the 
development of uniform motions in working operations with the 
attainment of adequate speed." — G. F. Buxton. 

4b. The Observation Method. 

Not all industries can be studied exclusively by the participa- 
tion method in the school shop. This should not be the case even 
though it were possible during this period. 

There are, however, groups of industries in school communities 
which can not be duplicated or studied to advantage in the school 
workshop. They must be studied, if at all possible, by the observa- 
tion method. Among the industries in this group belong steam 
engineering, paper-making, railroad engineering, the more advanced 
phases of the manufacture of automobiles, aeroplanes, motors, etc., 
boots and shoes, the textile industry, iron and steel, etc. For a 
study of the above group and other groups in which the pupils 
participate, trips should be taken to the mills, the factory or the 
railroad yards, for first-hand observation and information. 

4c. The Academic Method. 

Many of the industries can be studied by the participation and 
observation method; with some of these this is not possible. In 
either case an academic study of the industries should be correlated 
"with the other two methods. 

The academic method, vocational guidance or ''occupational 
information" is used in making further study, investigations of the 
industries as to wages, needs and opportunities, character and pos- 
sibilities of occupations, etc. Information is obtained and gathered 
from many places and presented in the form of lectures, slides and 
moving pictures, illustrations, lectures and reading. 

5. Vocational Guidance. 

To make the work of the prevocational preindustrial educa- 
tion entirely successful, the subject of vocational guidance should 



136 MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

be given considerable attention in order that the boy might be 
early set in the right way. 

"As a part of the school system vocational guidance should be 
definitely organized and supervised. Small systems in cities of ten 
thousand should have an adviser devoting full time to the work; 
large city systems should have a supervisor with assistants in the 
several schools constituting a bureau." 

Vocational guidance should be a distinct function of the entire 
system belonging to all the departments, and continuing throughout 
the school career of the pupil. Special emphasis, however^ should 
be given just before the child reaches the work age, or passes into 
the high school ; and again in the senior year when the pupil is face 
to face with vital life problems. 

Vocational guidance thus organized will concern itself with 
these problems : 

1. The accumulation of information about vocations. 

2. The imparting of information about vocations. 

3. The direction of the education of the pupil to best serve 
his needs. 

4. The introduction of vocational courses. 

5. The prevention of leakage from schools. 

6. The adjustment of the pupil to his life work. 

"When the school systems assume the responsibility for the 
vocational guidance of the youth, they will be more practical, and 
much of the waste that characterizes the present methods will be 
eliminated." — L. W. Bartlett, Pomona, Cal. 

The following is an outline for vocational guidance or related 
"occupational information": 

' ' 1. What demands does the occupation make upon the 
worker ? 

a. Physical, 

b. Mental. 

Peculiar abilities required. 

Length of schooling. Accompanying financial 
burden. 

c. Moral. 

2. What does the occupation offer the worker? 
a. Chance for promotion. 

Local or country-wide. 
Organization of labor. 
Steadiness of employment, etc. 



MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 137 

b. Health conditions. 

c. Moral conditions. 

d. Opportunities for recreation and self -improvement. 

e. Opportunities for service in the community. '' 

(See ''Vocational Information as a Part of Prevocational 
Work," by R. H. Eodgers, in the Industrial-Arts Magazine, p. 105, 
March, 1918.) 

Related work in various studies, such as arithmetic, English 
(spoken and written, including reading and spelling), history, 
geography, science, hygiene, drawing and choral practice should be 
given special attention- together with the work as outlined above. 

The reports of social, educational and industrial surveys 
contain much that may prove of help in gaining an accurate and 
detailed knowledge of many of our great industries. 

Commercial pamphlets and catalogues have printed in them 
matter describing their products, the materials entering into the 
construction of these products, the processes involved in the trans- 
formation of the materials, how to do them properly, etc., which is 
of gi-eat value to the instructor of "occupational" information. 
Further information along this line can be learned from the pages 
of standard magazines, and technological journals, reports and bul- 
letins issued by the various departments of education at "Washing- 
ton, D. C, and other cities and states. 

Catalogues, booklets, handbooks, magazines, and books relating 
to many of the basic industries, should be found in every shop 
library. Every school board should lend financial aid in this 
direction, for the reason that such an equipment is fully as essential 
as tools, machinery and other shop equipment. They are the tools 
necessary for academic work in the prevocational period in that 
they assist in correlating with and vitalizing other school subjects. 

Prevocational work is far wider in scope than many adminis- 
trators recognize. Prevocational, pre-industrial education, like 
vocational educational education has to do with all vocations — 
commercial, professional, industrial, agricultural, household arts 
and other, 

"Industrial education is one of the essential things needed to 
offset the monotony and specialization of modern industry, and to 
enable workmen to find and keep their jobs." — John R. Commons. 

6. A Plan for Small Cities. 

In cities where the departmental plan, junior high or prevoca- 
tional plan has not been adopted and but one and one-half hours 



138 MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

per week is given to grade boys, the work has failed to interest the 
boys because of the long time between lessons. The boys lost track 
of their work. 

This plan has always been very unsatisfactory and a change has 
been made in several manual training centers with good results. 

The new plan consists in having one class come to the shop for 
eighteen consecutive days instead of the old way when the boys 
came eighteen times in eighteen weeks. This plan made for 
efficiency in quantity and quality of the work done and has a most 
wholesome effect upon the boy. The interest shown by the boys 
more than justifies the change from the old to the new. 

The plan also does away with the purchase of much new 
material each year where the same had to be duplicated each time. 

Under the bid plan the boys in one class would often get their 
projects mixed with those of another. The new plan eliminates 
this condition entirely. 

The girls in the same grades go to domestic science and sewing 
classes at the same time that the boys go to the shops, and the 
teachers of these departments report equally good results. 

7. Shop or Constructive Work in the Prevocational Period. 

Many types of constructive work might be arranged for in 
most cities of Colorado ; among them occupations found in the 
woodworking industries, printing, metal work, cement, or electricity 
would be found the most profitable to include. 

It is not the purpose of this pamphlet to outline in detail out- 
lines of courses for, each type of work that might be undertaken in 
any school shop. The guiding principles as outlined in the above 
chapters should be strictly adhered to, to insure the right standards 
of workmanship and secure for the pupil correct habits and indus- 
trial intelligence and appreciation that will make for universal 
service and leadership. 

The junior high school, to be democratic, must be broad in its 
conception and include in its experiences true types of modern 
vocations, such as agricultural, manufactnrinp'. commercial and to 
some extent the professional. Constant attention should be given 
to instruction, observation and manual action. Manual action or 
vocational experience with the concrete materials and processes of 
various vocations is worth infinitely more than any "amount of 
second-hand knowledge gained through reading or the advice of 
adults. ' ' 

The junior high, if properly organized and handled, will show 
that all education should be closely related to vocational prepara- 



Mx^NUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 139 

tion and disclose the undeniable truth "that industry is the 
indispensable foundation of living-, and of good living*." 

8. Shop Exercises. 

The above analysis indicates that a period of required exer- 
cises, models, pieces, so often found in shop courses, do not and can 
not achieve the results desired. 

Ill, planning our work for the lower grades, let us not neglect 
to give opportunity for originality, constructive design, creative 
ability, self-reliance and the initiative. 

In our desire to render aid and support to our governmeht and 
do our bit in the shops, F. H. Shepherd, of the Oregon State Agri- 
cultural College, Corvallis, and assistant director of education and 
special training. Committee of Education, War Department, said 
recently with reference to making Red Cross, Y. M. C. A. and camp 
projects : 

"I am wondering what more useful lessons could be given to 
boys than teach them to meet the demands of society for needed 
articles whether it be a baseball bat or an aeroplane. 

"We must get away from the formal exercises and models of 
the schoolroom or our boys will never be trained, in school, to meet 
an unusual condition. An educated person is an unusual one, who 
is never nonplused in an unusual position, so training our boys to 
meet the demands of the present unusual conditions is surely adding 
to their education." 

9. Mechanical Brawing in the Grades.* 

The drawing of plans, designing, sketching, drafting, blue 
prints, reading, working, drawing or plans, etc., is necessary to the 
efficiency in any line of shop work. Mechanical drawing is the basis 
for all shop work and is essentially its reading or primary course. 

Mechanical drawing in the grades, although it is not as formal 
as that of the high school, yet it should be as carefully taught as 
any other subject in the curriculum. 

The best results to be obtained during this period is to spend 
about eight, nine, ten or twelve weeks in mechanical drawing before 
any work in the shop is attempted. All shop exercises should be 
preceded by a carefully executed working; drawing of the same. 

A VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

1. Definition. 

.(a) "Vocational education (training) is any form of 
education (training) that equips the individual 
with a marketable skill." 



140 MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

(b) "To give knowledge and skill of direct value upon 
immediate entrance into the trades or trade." 

2. Period. 

Senior high school grades 10, 11 and 12. 

3. Function of the Senior High School. 

If the junior high school is to be truly and thoroughly 

prevocational, its promise is that the senior high school 

will furnish the basis for suitable choice of curriculum 

and that choice should be the opportunity for specialized 

training in some one or more vocations. Hence, the 

final choice of the pupil leaving the prevocational should 

be vocational in aim. The pupil should come from the 

junior high school with a fair idea of choice. In the 

senior high school the student should pursue his work 

in the chosen field. 

Courses can not be general and special at the same time. 

Under the usual system of the general or cosmopolitan high school, 

where everything is based upon subject or subject-department, the 

present educational values — social, individual and disciplinary — as 

indicated by their order, can not be attained unless reorganization 

upon a curriculum basis takes place. 

The curriculum or sub-school should have for its function a 
particular purpose and should represent in miniature the separate 
special school which attempts a single purpose. 

In the place of objectiveless courses with confused and unde- 
fined aims, specialized courses must be offered that have a direct 
relation with all vocations — commercial, professional, industrial, 
agricultural, domestic economy, etc. Such a system of education 
would entirely eliminate the present erroneous assumption, that 
the student who chooses the college preparatory course can make 
no mistake. 

Curriculums in the senior high school "should be those which 
lend themselves to the resources and organization of the school, 
which involve a social utility that is undisputed, which meet 
demands for considerable recruits- — which are suitable to the ages 
and capacities of the high school pupils." 

The change from the old (general education) to the new 
(specialized types of instruction) can not be immediately abandoned 
because of present controlling convictions, conservative tendencies, 
student traditions. Present teachers and equipment in many 
schools are also unsuitable for specialized purpose. 



MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 141 

Changes, however, to meet the demands for vocational educa- 
tion, with its feature of specialization in the senior high school, are 
being made the country over, in order that they might answer the 
provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act. 

4. The Smith-Hughes Act. 

The Federal Board for Vocational Education has announced 
in an oiScial document its definition of vocational education : 

' ' To the extent that it is subsidized by the Federal Government 
under the Smith-Hughes Act, vocational training for the common 
wage-earning employments. It may be given to boys and girls who, 
having selected a vocation, desire preparation for entering it as 
trained wage-earners; to boys and girls who, having already taken 
up a wage-earning employment, seek greater efficiency in that em- 
ployment; or to wage-earners established in their trade or occupa- 
tion, who wish, through increase in their efficiency and wage-earning 
capacity, to advance to positions of responsibility. 

"The guiding principle of the newly-created system of voca- 
tional education is announced to be that 'the education to be 
furnished must be under public supervision and control, designed 
to train persons for useful employment, whether in agriculture, 
trade and industry, or home economics.' " 

Prior to December 1, 1917, the plans for vocational education 
of twenty-two states had been approved. At the regular meeting 
of the Federal Board December 14, 1917, the plans of eighteen 
additional states were considered and approved and these states 
were certified to the Secretary of the Treasury as having complied 
with the terms of the law entitling them aid. Among these states 
was Colorado. 

The state apportionment of the Federal fund for vocational 
education for 1918-19 was announced at this writing. The total 
amount distributed to the various states was $2,307,460, and each 
state participating has appropriated for vocational education an 
amount equal to its share. The amount allotted to Colorado is 
$19,273. 

The Colorado Agricultural College, at Fort Collins, has been 
recognized as the institution where teachers are to be trained for 
vocational work. 

The academic work taken in connection with vocational train- 
ing must be closely related, not non-vocational in character, as is 
so often the case in technical high schools and commercial courses. 

5. Time. , 

Under the curriculum plan the time given purely to technical 



142 MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

or vocaLional work, to related technical and to general or non- 
vocational subjects, will be governed largely by the credit system 
for diplomas in vogue in various communities. However, concen- 
tration and specialization in some field is necessary in the third and 
fourth years if efficiency standards are to be achieved by the 
student. 

About one-half of the required school time should be devoted 
to specialized, technical or vocational work; another fourth should 
be given to the related technical subjects, such as industrial history 
and geography, science and physics, economics, commercial law, 
commercial aiid shop mathematics, materials, commerce, 
a modern language, written and oral English, etc. An- 
other fourth may be general. English and civics is the usual 
requirement in most communities, and the choice of subjects is 
necessarily limited by convention. Under this plan the pupil will 
be able to meet the minimum requirements of the diploma. 

But in our desire for specialization we must not adopt a system 
of Prussianism in education in this country, for it should also be 
our plan in training our youth for a democracy that we give due 
condition to the development of real character and independence 
of thought and action. We must not only teach our boys and girls 
how to make a living, but awaken in them an appreciation of the 
things that make life worth while. 

Therefore, "additional opportunity for wider choice should be 
made and the students encouraged to do something outside the 
limits of specialization and convention. The idea of the avocation, 
the opportunity for doing something for reasons other than those 
of utility, should be encouraged in an age where the idea of utility 
is exalted. The vocation must receive emphasis, to be sure, but we 
ought not to erect barriers against the instinct for the unusual, the 
now useful, the abstractly artistic. ' ' 

The finished product of our schools should possess the qualities" 
of intelligence, industry, public spirit, health, domesticity, polite- 
ness, taste and righteousness. These are the elements which, when 
properly fused in the caldron of public education, will reach their 
ideals of Americanism to the uttermost parts of the world and stand 
as memorials to the end of time. 

6. General Education in Small Cities. 

In most of the cities of Colorado, the separate trade school is 
impracticable. The vocational training offered in the junior and 
senior high can, however, be made valuable to the students who 
find it necessary to go to work immediately after leaving school. 



MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 143 

Another school that meets the demand of small cities is the 
''General Industrial School," whose "aim is to give each boy some 
practical shop experience in a number of trades selected with a 
view to meeting local industrial conditions, so far as possible. The 
shopwork is accompanied by instruction in related technical sub- 
jects, including drawing, mathematics, and science, together with 
instruction in language, civics, physical training and other subjects 
necessary to a well-rounded course." 

The Federal Board for Vocational Education must be con- 
sulted for its policy in considering a plan for vocational education 
in small cities. 

C. Other Educational Endeavors, Schools and Enterprises in 
the United States for Training its Citizens Along Industrial Lines. 

The following are types of schools that are receiving consider- 
able attention and support in many cities and states : 

1. The Trade School, whose chief aim is to give instruction in 
different trades and which will lead immediately to technical skill 
and employment in the occupation chosen. It gives little attention 
to the broader side of, education. It prepares for immediate 
induction into the industrial world. 

2. Continuation Schools have been adopted in many states 
and have met with unusual success. Like the Part-time Co-opera- 
tive Courses, continuation schools aim to give instruction along 
industrial and general educational lines and meet the needs of 
young and old not regularly enrolled in the school system. Under 
these forms of instruction, pupils and students are able to continue 
along their regular lines of employment. In some states attendance 
in continuation classes is compulsory. 

3. Short-unit Courses are devices for effectively meeting the 
needs of certain groups of workers already in the trade and others 
of the community. "The short-unit or brief course is an intensi- 
fied form of instruction which is intended to serve in a limited 
number of lessons a specific need of a particular group. Each unit 
deals with one part of the trade or interest and is complete in 
itself. The subject matter is selected with reference to the need 
of the group rather than its relation to other parts of the trade." 
These courses are conducted for brief periods during the day or 
evening. 

4. Apprenticeship Courses are generally conducted by manu- 
facturers in their own plants for the benefit of their employees. 
Many changes have been made from the old-type apprenticeship 



144 MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

course in that employees are given academic instruction along with 
their practical experience. 

5. The Smith-Sears Bill provides for such re-education of ou^- 
returned army as is necessary to restore them to civil employment. 
It carries an initial appropriation of $6,000,000. Vocational 
instruction and rehabilitation is now being provided for the soldiers, 
sailors and marines at some of the nation's larger hospitals. 

D. Americanization. 

According to the last census the United States has more than 
4,600,000 inhabitants over twenty years of age who cannot read or 
write. How to train the thousands of illiterates now in the army 
and soon to be drafted is a mammoth problem. 

Along this line Mr. Ernest E. Cole, assistant superintendent of 
the Chicago schools, says the following: 

' ' Illiteracy and democracy cannot exist together, and education 
must prepare the way. ' ' 

City Superintendent Emeritus Dr. "William H. Maxwell, in his 
last report as superintendent of public schools, states that two 
pressing national needs have been disclosed by the war : ' ' more 
trade schools and more thorough Americanization of foreigners." 
"The first lesson taught by this war is the need of more trade 
schools and continuation schools," is the opening paragraph of the 
report. He says, 'Hhe time is past for the theoretical discussion of 
the advantages of teaching trades. The stern hand of history has 
shown us that an untrained people is a people undeveloped eco- 
nomically, physically and morally. There is no room in our country 
today for those who are not fitted for some definite calling. Our 
nation needs the intelligent, well-trained effort of every man 
and woman within its borders. Wliile some may render this serv- 
ice in the professions or in trained scientific, commercial and other 
industrial pursuits, the great mass of the people must render it in 
the various trades. Although we realize that it is a blot upon the 
honor of illiterates among the inhabitants, and consequently appre- 
ciate the importance of compulsory education and child labor laws, 
we have not realized, as yet, that it is just as much a matter of 
reproach to have a large number of persons who can read and write, 
but who are not fitted for any particular kind of work. Is it not 
a fact that the so-called Industrial Workers of the World consist 
almost entirely of persons who have no trade? Could such an 
organization be formed arong the skilled workers ? " 

"A poor workman quarrels with his tools, and poor tools make 
quarrelsome workmen. When we train a man for his work he be- 



MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 145 

comes a better citizen. Hence vocational education is the founda- 
tion of good citizenship." 

E. Doing Our Bit in Manual Training During War. 

The following question came to the editorial staff of Indus- 
trial-Arts Magazine recently: 

Q. — ''Through what general types of activities can manual 
training departments in elementary and high schools do their bit 
during the present war emergency?" 

A. — "The desire of manual training departments to be of 
direct service during the present war has manifested itself in a 
number of distinct lines of activity: 

' ' First, the departments have tried to produce articles that are 
of distinct war utility. These articles have included: (a) furniture 
and fittings for Y. M. C. A. buildings and for the recreation build- 
ings in army cantonments; (b) games and other articles for per- 
sonal use of soldiers; (c) interior furnishings and hospital equip- 
ment for the Red Cross, and (d) articles of furniture such as 
cutting and work tables, chairs, folding chairs, packing boxes, yarn 
winders, sock stretchers and other articles for the use of the Red 
Cross chapters. 

"A second type of work has been in the direction of the manu- 
facture of furniture and equipment for school use. The idea has 
been to make articles which cannot readily be bought in the market 
and the purpose has been to conserve labor and materials and to 
reduce the school expenditures which have grown enormously 
through the increased cost of all labor and materials. 

"A third means of service has been the manufacture of simple 
devices and articles for local community use. In some cities the 
boys have put up signboards for war savings and Liberty Loan 
campaigns, they have built fences around war gardens and they 
have made markers, etc. 

"A fourth way in which the manual training department can 
do its bit is to make articles for Red Cross sales and for Christmas 
sales, the profits to be devoted to some form of war work. Under 
this head schools in many parts of the country have made thou- 
sands of puzzles, small toys and articles of furniture which they 
have sold to the local people at considerable profit. In some com- 
munities the boys have undertaken jobbing work, including the re- 
pair of chairs, caning, etc. The profits have been employed to buy 
war savings stamps or have been given to the Red Cross." 

F. War Worh Suggestions and Activities for the Grades and 
High Schools, 



146 MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

Note: Do not spend money to make things in quantity for 
the Red Cross until you are assured they will be wanted. Do not 
send things that have been made until you have reason to know they 
will be gladly received. And do not expect the Eed Cross to pay 
for the materials you use unless official assurance has been given. 

Checker Boards from paper and cardboard. 

Paper Dolls to be presented by our Sammies to refugee chil- 
dren or placed in the pockets of dresses to be shipped abroad. 

Scrap Books. 

News Clippings of interest to our soldier boys. 

Knit Small Squares, 4-inch, for baby booties or afghans. 

Portfolios for Stationery of heavy paper and cardboard. 

Address Books to go with portfolio. 

Stamp Books to go with portfolio. 

Calendar and Blotter Pads to go with portfolio. 

Pin Balls. 

Needle Cases. 

Knitting needles of dowels or willow. 

Map or Picture Puzzle of thin wood or cardboard made with 
coping saw. 

Dominos of cardboard or wood with box. 

Checker Board and Men of heavy cardboard or wood with case. 

Solitaire Board. 

Cribbage Score Board. 

Sewing Problems for hospitals and refugees, as outlined in the 
Red Cross pamphlets. 

Gun Wipes. 
* Sewing Problems for the girls. 

Ambulance Pillows. 

Sewing Problems as suggested in A. R. C. pamphlets. 

Knitting Problems as suggested: wristlets, mufflers, soels, e';c., 
for the girls. 

Packing Cases for Red Cross, 24"x24"x36" outside measure- 
ments, of wood %" or %" thick. Ends reinforced. 

Reel for winding yard (see A. R. C. 400). 

Stocking Knitting Frame (see Industrial Ar's Magazine Feb., 
1918). 

Chess Board and Men, of round discs, with the men drawn or 
printed on. 

Ring Toss Games. 

Bean Bag Games. 

Ping Pong Sets, 



MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 147 

Box Ball Sets. 

Case or Box for above. 

Mechanical Puzzles. 

Splints of basswood and yucca pine wood (cut according to 
Red Cross specifications: length 17yo", width 3i/4", thickness 3/32"). 

Crutches (from models obtained from drug store). 

Hospital Trays. 

Stretchers (according to military specifications). 

Convalescent Canvas Chairs. 

Back Rests for convalescent patients (flat boards 32" long. 18" 
wide and 1%" thick). 

Bedside Chart Holders. 

Bed Trays. 

Bed Cages. 

Bedside Tables. 

Baseball Bats. 

Jumping Standards. 

Bird Cages for Y. M. C. A. Buildings. 

Flower Boxes for Y. M. C. A. Buildings. 

Chess Men (turning problems). 

Tongue Depressers. 

Joke Books. 

Drill Guns (for junior and senior high schools). 

Street Signs for smaller communities. 

War Garden Hot Beds (by C. E. Durst, Circular No. 215, 
published by the Agricultural Experiment Station, University of 
Illinois, Urbana, 111.). 

Yarn Holder. 

Yarn Winder 

Back Yard Chicken Coops. 

Rabbit Hutches. 

Other Poultry Problems. 

Dog Houses. 

Red Cross Problems for the local chapter, such as : screens, 
lounging chairs, card tables, cutting tables, blackboard for instruc- 
tors, etc. 

Dressing Tables. 

Taborets. 

Benches. 

Lamps. ' • 

Folding Tables. 

Andirons (Bessemer steel or iron). 



148 MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONiVIj EDUCATION 

Spark Screens (iron frame, wire mesh). 

Shades (parchment or fabric; color as per sample). 

Inkwells and Blotter Ends (wood printed; glass wells; color 
as per sample). 

Garden Markers. 

Trays for dehydrating fruits, vegetables, etc. 

Garden Tools. 

Individual Boxes (for use in base and post hospitals). 

''Foot Locker," to slip under bunks of soldiers and hold some 
of their personal belongings (15" wide, 13" high and 30" long, out- 
side measurements). 

Indian Clubs. 

Carom Boards. 

Shuffle Boards. 

Checkers can be made of shotgun wads and colored with ink. 

Indoor Quoits. 

Ping Pong. 

Bowling Green Balls. 

Bag o'tell. 

Swinging Flower Boxes. 

Dumb Bells. 

Bee Hives (save sugar). 
. Kitchen Safes. 

Note : See past issues of the Industrial-Arts Magazine, Man- 
ual Training Magazine and other publications. Watch what the 
Federal Board of Vocational Education, the United States Depart- 
ment of Education, the War Department and other departments 
at Washington are doing at this time. Watch for their publica- 
tions. 

G. Other Timely Educational War-Time Activities and 
Problems. 

Introduce Welding in your school. 

Automobile repair work. 

Tractor engineering. 

Farm mechanics in small towns. 

Toy making. 

Train War Registrants in your schools. 

Make repairs of all kinds. 

Wireless Telegraphy. 

Magneto Assembling. 

Commercial or Industrial Art and Design. 

Show Card Writing. 



MAkUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 149 

Have Night Schools. 

Evening Trade Schools. 

Summer Schools. 

Modeled Leather Work. 

A Cobbling Class. (Teach boys to keep their shoes in repair 
and those of the athletic teams.) 

Night Schools for Drafted Men. 

War emergency courses conducted by the Public School sys- 
tem in factories and commercial houses. 

Make munitions in the high school Vhere equipped for such 
work. 

Urge boys to join and become members of the Boy Scouts of 
America. 

Introduce a plan for home industrial work. 

Heed the President's call for the Boys' Working Reserve. 

Turn shops over to the treating of soldiers on their return. 

Introduce ' ' Print Writing, ' ' as England has done in her schools 
and found most successful. 

Take advantage of the Smith-Hughes Law and have vocational 
education in your high school. 

Let the high school manual training department build your 
gymnasium, playground apparatus, etc. 

All boys and girls should join the U. S. School Garden Army 
to increase and conserve food products. 

- Printing classes can print the President's messages and ad- 
dresses dealing with the war for use in the grades and high school. 

Aid in preparing supplies for the soldiers and their homeless 
families. 

Save your tracing cloth for the Red Cross. 

Cut Stencils for letters and figures for use in the school for 
sign making and painting numbers on class-room doors. 

The bookbinding class should repair torn books of the school. 

Educational opportunities in vocational and industrial educa- 
tion should be offered to girls and women in our schools. 

Vulcanizing Course. — Boys can repair the automobile tires 
for their fathers, their own and others. 

Soldering Course. — Boys should learn to solder all tinware 
about the home or that of the domestic science department. 

Machine Shop classes can make miniature models of warfare, 
such as cannons, tanks, etc. Others can build - diminutive bridges, 
trenches, etc. Manual training should also function in the home. 



150 MANUAL TRAINIKG AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

/ 

The experience obtained in the school workshop should find applica- 
tion about the boy's home. 

Kind of Work. — Soldering, vulcanizing, cement sidewalks, 
cobbling, furniture repair, caning, window shade repairs, shelf- 
making, toys for younger members of the family, picture hanging, 
book repairs, leaking gas jets, the use of asbestos, varnishing floors 
and furniture, painting and mixing of paints, glazing, electric bell 
work (batteries, wiring, etc.). 

Occasionally use the communitive plan, group plan or factory 
plan of production in your manual training classes. Use jigs, etc. ; 
have a foreman, etc., for each group. 

Make shop safety devices. 

Use Industrial Slides. 

Have lectures in your school by artisans and professional men. 

INDUSTRIAL ARTS IN RURAL SCHOOLS 

Perhaps the greatest consideration in this pamphlet should be 
given to our rural schools, for the reason that they are not always 
able to receive the careful guidance and help from trained spe- 
cialists and teachers of industrial arts. Then, too, these schools 
do not possess the facilities, equipment and means to carry on suc- 
cessful manual training, as is the case with a well organized city 
school system, with its greater financial support, better buildings, 
etc. 

Even though such conditions exist that apparently hinder her 
progress in industrial education, there are, indeed, splendid oppor- 
tunities at this time for the rural school in which to render a most 
praiseworthy service. 

In the smaller schools and poorer districts, workbenches can 
be made by the boys themselves. To be sure, the making of a 
workbench is a splendid problem for any boy in any school, work- 
shop, or home. Plain benches can be constructed from common 
lumber or heavy packing boxes to which a vise-screw can be fast- 
ened. The latter can be purchased for about $1.50. 

As to tools — some of these can be obtained from home by the 
pupils and the rest purchased by the school board. Funds, can be 
raised for necessary manual training equipment, by giving some 
performance, operetta, playlet, etc., that has been arranged by, the 
pupils and their teacher. Patrons of a community are always 
willing to give their support toM'-ards a worthy cause in this fash- 
ion. The objection to be found with tools that might be brought 



MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 151 

from home is that they are of an old pattern and often useless 
for effective workmanship. 

In outlining a course for rural school manual training, one 
mnst consider at all times the needs of the community and that 
the work undertaken should touch the life of a boy in his work, 
play, school and home. Exercises and problems should be selected 
which will enable pupils and students to secure further training 
through designing and constructing things of practical use and 
service in their home and on the ranch. Manual training carried 
on in the right way hy a tactful teacher, will be found to inspire 
pupils with greater enthusiasm for all school work in general. 
The thoroughness, accuracy and attention to detail insisted upon 
in this work, react admirably upon the character of the students. 

As to courses of study and projects, do not have hard-and- 
fast rules. Select projects and processes that are adapted to the 
ability of the pupils at hand and that awaken interest and are 
serviceable. 

In township schools and country high schools, the students 
should be taught to work with a number of materials, with ' ' farm 
mechanics" as the principal thought of instruction. 

The one big thing that comes to the author at this time, in 
order that our boys of the country school may have a part in 
winning the war when the price of materials are high and labor is 
short, is a "farm implement hospital." 

Manual training shops equipped for woodworking and iron 
work can give prompt and efficient service to farmers within a 
radius of twenty miles in repairing farm machinery of all kinds. 
Such an implement hospital could be kept running during the 
summer months, when the wear and tear on farm machinery is 
greatest. Farmers should be asked to pay for all materials used 
and meet all other expenses involved in the repair of their farm 
implements. 

SUGGESTED PROBLEMS AND PROCESSES FOR RURAL MANUAL TRAINING 

CLASSES 

1. Setting posts. 2. Building fences. 

3. Planting trees. 4. Oiling harness. 

5. Pruning trees. 6. Mending with rivets. 

7. Mending harness. 8. Caring for farm and other 

tools. 

9. Protecting trees. 10. Putting handles in tools. 

11, Nailing on horseshoes. 12. Sharpening plows. 



152 



MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



13, Mixing mortar. 

15. Laying cement walk. 

17. Setting locks. 

19. Building roads. 

21. Gluing. 

23. Knot tying. 

25. Lubrication of farm ma- 
chinery. 
27. Simple forging, welding. 



29. Pipe work. 

31. Gas Tractor operation. 



14. Laying stone wall. 

16. Hanging doors. 

18. Mixing paint and glazing. 

20. Putting culverts in roads. 

22. Soldering. 

24. Harnessing, hitching, and 
unhitching horses. 

26. Care and running of gas en- 
gines. 

28. Grinding and sharpening 
edge of tools, mowers, 
binders, sickles, etc. 

30. Belt lacing. 



LIST OF AGRICULTURAL PROBLEMS 



Tool chest 
Nail box 
Bench hook 
Neck yoke 
Three-horse evener 
Clothes stick 
Concrete forms 
Ply traps 
Seed-testing box 
Corn rack 
Sheep-feeding 

trough 
Hayrack 
Dog house 
Tree pruner 
Hotbed 
Water trough 
Chicken crate 
Shrub label 
Fireless cooker 
Chicken brooder 
Hammer handle 
Sawhorse 



Stepladder 

"Whiffle-tree 

Beehive 

Wash bench 

Clothes rack 

Rabbit trap 

Bird house 

Corn dryer 

Cattle rack 

Hog rack 

Portable hog house 

Table for milk test- 
er and other pur- 
poses 

Cold frame 

Oats sprouter 

Kitchen cabinet 

Potato marker 

Carpenter's vise 

Rabbit hutch 

Poultry house 

Miter box 

Workbench 



Milk tool 
Wagon jack 
Wheelbarrow 
Farmer's level or 

plumb 
Forcing box 
Hand cultivator 
Chicken coop 
Gate 

Wagon box 
Wagon feeding 

trough 
Road drag 
Hothouse 
Sack frame 
Nests for laying hens 
Trellis, rowmarker 
Flour box 
Wood and kindling 

box 
Box furniture 



To these might be added other problems for the shop, poultry 
yard, seed corn, yard, the farm house, garden, stock, barn yard, 
bees, concrete work and other miscellaneous needs, 



MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 153 

SHOP EQUIPMENT SUITABLE FOR INDUSTRIAL ARTS WORK IN RURAL AND 
SMALL TOWN SCHOOLS 

(a) Woodworking Tools for a Rural School Shop: 
1 No. 5 Bailey jack plane. 

1 22-inch 10 point, crosscut hand saw (Disston or Atkins) No. 63. 

1 22-inch 8 point, rip saw (Disston or Atkins) No. 65. 

1 No. 915, 10-inch Sweep Stanley ratchet brace. 

1 1/4-inch, i/^-inch, 1-ineh and %-inch (Rnssel Jennings or Irwin) 

augerbit. 
1 Clark's expansive bit No. 2. 
1 Rose counter sink. 
1 No. 101 Goodell reciprocating drill. 

1 %-inch, 5-32-inch, 3-16-inch, 7-32 inch and %-inch drills. 
1 No. 51 Stanley spoke shave. 
1 No. 71%, Buck Bros. 8-inch drawing knife. 
1 No. 35, Buck Bros, chisels, i/4-inch, i^-inch, 1-inch. 
1 Hickory mallet, 2%-inch by 5-inch. 
1 No. 12 Maydole hammer. 
1 Champion screwdriver, 8-inch. 
1 Monkey wrench, 8-inch. 
1 No. 25, 8-inch Stanley bevel. 
1 No. 65 Stanley marking gauge. 
1 Eagle pencil compass No. 576. 
1 2-inch Combination oil stone (unmounted), 7-inch. 
1 Oil can. 

1 All bristle 9-inch duster. 
1 Iron bench screw, l%xl2. 

The total cost of the above equipment in 1915 was $14.40. 
Since then, on account of the war, the same has increased by per- 
haps 33 1-3%, 

SHOP EQUIPMENT 

(b) Tools for General Blacksmith Work: 

Elementary shop and practice work and repair work in iron 
and cement would make a very desirable line of work for such a 
shop. For this work the following equipment would be required : 
1 18-inch hand-blown forge. 
1 kit of blacksmith 's tools : 

1 14-inch tongs, 

1 cold chisel, 

1 hot chisel, 

1 hardie, 



154 MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCAl-ION 

1 blacksmith's hammer, 2 lb. 

1 10-inch pinchers. 

1 blacksmith's anvil (Hay, Buddon or Trinton). 

1 hand drill press. 

1 3 V- -inch mechanic's vise (Reed). 

1 No. 10, all steel tinner's. snips. 

Total cost in 1915 was $28.60. See catalogs for present prices, 

(c) Tools Needed for Simple Cement Work: 
1 mixing hoe. 

1 shovel, No. 2 square point, D handle. 

1 10-inch Cincinnati pattern plastering trowel. 

1 10-inch Rose pattern trowel. 

1 5-inch pointing trowel. 

Total cost in 1915 was $2.80. See catalogs for present prices. 

The boys and teachers should make all mixing troughs and 
bins needed for the cement work. 

(d) Soldering: 

1 Gasoline torch, $3.50. 

1 "Nokorode" Soldering Kit: 

2 oz. box "Nokorode, " 
Soldering Iron, 

1 Handle, 

1-oz. String Solder. 
1-oz. roll friction tape. 

2 strips emery cloth. 
Wooden case. 

Entire Outfit, $1.00. Directions included with the outfit. For 
sale by local dealers. 

(e^ Painter's Tools: 
Oval brush, No. 8. 
Varnish brush, 2-inch. 
Varnish brush, 3-inch. 
Wall brush. No. 6. 
Glass cutter. 
Putty knife. 
Sash tool. No. 2. 

FURTHER HELPS FOR TEACHERS OF MANUAL TRAINING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 

Charts of tools, catalog, etc. (free) — Stanley Rule & Level 
Co., New Britain, Conn. 



MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 155 

Charts of files, saws, booklets on sharpening saws, etc. (free) 
—Henry Disston & Sons, Inc., Philadelphia, Pa. 

A Simple Trap Nest for Poultry, Farmers' Bulletin No. 682, 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

The Road Drag and How It Is Used, Farmers' Bulletin No. 
597, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, "Washington, D. C. 

Wood Finishes for Manual Training Schools, The Marietta 
Paint and Color Co., Marietta, Ohio. 

Manual Training School Equipment, Benches, Tools, Sup- 
plies, etc.. Catalog, Belcher & Loomis Hardware Co., Providence, 
Rhode Island. 

Furniture for Amateur Craftsmen (Cypress Library), South- 
ern Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n., New Orleans, La. (free). 

The Proper Treatment for Floors, Woodwork and Furniture, 
S. C. Johnson & Son, Racine, Wis. Also send for Portfolio ot 
Wood Panels (free). 

Simonds Manual Training Series: No. 1, Booklet, ''The Pro- 
fessor and the Saw." No. 2, Charts, set of Educational Blue- 
prints' No. 3, Booklet, "How to File a Hand Saw." No. 4, Plans, 
Specifications, and Tool Equipment for Manual Training Depart- 
ment (free). Series No. 4 contains two blue prints of "Bench 
Plan for Group of Six Pupils, Bench Plan for Individual Pupils," 
with instructions for making — Simonds Mfg. Company, Fitch- 
burg, Mass. 

A sample of the Griffin coping saw blade and printed circular, 
John H. Graham & Co., 113 Chambers Street, New York. 

The Use of Paint on the Farm, Farmers' Bulletin No. 474, 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

The Repair of Farm Equipment, Farmers' Bulletin No. 347, 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

Quarterly Bulletin of Milwaukee School of Agriculture and 
Domestic Economy, Vol. 4, No. 4, Feb., 1915, Wauwatosa, Wis. 

Laboratory Exercises in Farm Mechanics for Agricultural 
High Schools, Farmers' Bulletin No. 638, U. S. Dept. of Agricul- 
ture. 

Farm-and-Home Handicrafts Club Projects (20), issued by 
the Oregon Agricultural College Extension Service, Corvallis, 
Oregon. 

"When the City Boy Goes to the Farm," a set of Farm Craft 
lessons (22 in number) — U. S. Boys' Working Reserve, Depart- 



156 MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

ment of Labor, Address office of Federal State Director, Illinois 
State Council of Defense, Room 47, 120 W. Adams Street, Chi- 
cago, 111. 

FURTHER HELPS 

Farm-and-Home Plandicrafts Club Projects— State Club 
Leader, Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis, Oregon. 

Home-made Fireless Cooker, Farmers' Bulletin No. 771, U. S. 
Dept. of Agriculture. 

Good book for beginners — Essentials of "Woodworking, by 
Ira S. Griffith, 75c, Manual Arts Press, Peoria, 111. 

Farm Home Conveniences — Madge V. Reese, Farmers' Bulle^ 
tin 927, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

Send for Catalogs : 

''Books on the Manual Arts" — a bibliography listing and de- 
scribing 400 books (mailed free). The Manual Arts Press, Peoria, 
HI. 

Mechanics Handbook, Millers Falls Co., Millers Falls, Mass. 

"Yankee Tool Book," North Bros. Mfg. Co., Philadelphia, 
Pa. 

Manual Training Catalog, B. C. Atkins & Co., Inc., Indianap- 
olis, Ind. 

Carborundum Pocket Stone and Complete Catalog, The Car 
borundum Co., Niagara Falls, N. Y. 

Good Journals : 

Industrial Arts Magazine (monthly), $2.00 per year. The 
Bruce Publishing Company,. 129 Michigan St., Milwaukee, Wis. 

Manual Training Magazine (monthly), $1.25 per year. The 
Manual Arts Press, Peoria, 111. 

BOOKS CONTAINING FARM PROBLEMS 

The following books contain small problems for the mak- 
ing of useful articles used about the farm and the farm home : 
Roehl's Agricultural Woodworking, $1.08, Bruce Publishing Co., 
Milwaukee, Wis.; Blackburn's Problems in Farm Woodwork, $1, 
Manual Arts Press; Brace's Farm Shopwork, $1, American Book 
Co. ; Handy Farm Devices and How to Make Them, $1.50, Orange 
Judd Co. ; Farm Appliances, 50c, Orange Judd Co. ; Farm Devices, 
$1, Orange Judd Co. ; Bulletins (Cypress Library) of the Southern 
Cypress Association (free). New Orleans, La.; Farm and Home 
Mechanics (free). Southern Pine Association, New Orleans, La.; 
A Hundred Handy Helps for the Farmer and His Home (free). 



MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 157 

Southern Pine Association; Dewey's Series of Farm Projects, 
L. C. Dewey, Denver, Colo.; Ramsower's Equipment for the Farm 
and the Farmstead, $2.25, Ginn & Co. ; Manual Training for 
Rural Schools, by Louis M. Roehl, 35c, Bruce Publishing Co., 
Milwaukee. 

SMALL BUILDINGS 

Roehl's Agricultural "Woodworking, $1.08, Bruce Publishing 
Co.; Powell's Farm Plans and Out Buildings, $1, Manual Arts 
Press ; French & Ives Agricultural Drawing and Design of Frame 
Structures, $1.25, Manual Arts Press ; Farm Buildings, $2, Manual 
Arts Press; Eckblaw's Farm Structures, $1.75, Macmillan Co.; 
Hopkins' Modern Farm Buildings, $3, Webb Publishing Co.; 
Poultry Houses and Equipment, 25c, Webb Publishing Co.; Poul- 
try Houses and Fixtures, Reliable Poultry Journal; Making a 
Poultry House, 50c, John McBride Co.; Fiske's Poultry Architec- 
ture, 50c, Manual Arts Press; Practical Country Buildings (free), 
(Trade Extension Department), Northern Hemlock and Hard- 
wood Mfrs. Association, Oshkosh, Wis.; Swine Houses (free). 
National Lumber Mfrs. Association, Chicago ; Poultry House 
Construction, 5c, United States Department of Agriculture ; Plans 
and Suggestions for the Arrangement of a Modern Milk House, 
(Fa,rm Products Division) Borden's Condensed Milk Co.; Eck- 
blaw's Grain Storage Buildings, National Lumber Mfrs. Associa- 
tion; Eckblaw's Implement Sheds, National Lumber Mfrs. As- 
sociation; Construction of the Dairy House, Bulletin of the Uni- 
versity of Illinois ; Hog Houses, 5c, United States Department of 
Agriculture ; Smaller Farm Buildings, Southern Pine Association. 

PROBLEMS IN CONCRETE 

Concrete in the Barnyard, Universal Portland Cement Co.; 
Small Farm Buildings of Concrete, Universal Portland Cement 
Co. ; Concrete Silos, Universal Portland Cement Co. ; Concrete 
Constrtiction for Rural Communities, $2, McGraw-Hill Book Co. ; 
Hansen's Concrete Silos, $1, Cement Era Publishing Co.; Concrete 
Fountains and Lawn Ornaments, 50c, N. W. Henley Publishing 
Co.; Campbell's Concrete for Home and Farm Shop, 75c, N. W. 
Henley Publishing Co.; Kind's Silos, 50c, Webb Publishing Co. 

ADDENDA 

1. The introduction of greater variety in shop equipment, 
processes and materials is regarded as essential if the proposed 
aims of prevocational and vocational education are to be realized. 



158 MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

2. No teachers should be employed for any types of indus- 
trial education who are not fully prepared through scholastic 
training and experience to teach the same. 

3. Under one deputy superintendent should be. centered the 
responsibility for all activities in the manual training arts, vo- 
cational guidance, and vocational education. 

4. Under the immediate direction of this deputy superin- 
tendent should be grouped a staff of trained directors of special 
subjects, including at least (a) fine arts, (b) home economics^ 
(c) manual training, (d) prevocational, vocational, including vo- 
cational guidance. 

5. A state paper of four' pages printed on plain paper, 
should be issued every month from the office of the State Super- 
intendent of Public Instruction in the interest of industrial arts 
teachers. Said paper need not be larger than ll"xl5'' and all 
printed matter could be arranged after the fashion of our mod- 
ern nev^^spaper. 

All subject matter should have direct bearing on manual 
training, prevocational and vocational education. The depart- 
ment of home economics could also be given recognition and 
space in this paper. 

The paper should aim to aid especially teachers in need of 
advice, those who desire to be further enlightened on the work in 
hand and the field of industrial arts in general. 

Letters of special interest and those instructive in character 
should find a place in this paper. 

Space should be given to a review of important happenings, 
legislation, publications, meetings, etc., along the line for which 
the paper is intended. 

The editing of the paper should be placed in the hands of 
some competent person or persons appointed by the State Super- 
intendent of Public Instruction. 

Copies of said paper should be mailed to every instructor of 
industrial arts, principal and city superintendent within the State 
of Colorado. 



&00D ROADS 

Since the public roads so closely affect our commercial con- 
ditions and our social and educational environment, there is every 
reason why the school boy and girl should be impressed with the 
importance of good roads, and be given an understanding of the 
elementary principles of road administration and construction. 

A road is the means of internal communication and transpor- 
tation between points in any country — a place where one may ride 
or drive ; it is an open way appropriated for public passage and 
travel, for wagons or other vehicles, and is necessary to the good 
of every community. 

Pupils in our public schools must be instructed in the ele- 
mentary principles and practices of road-making, the beneficial 
effects of good roads to a community, and such other information 
on the subject of road construction and maintenance as will better 
fit them as men to help solve the perplexing road problem, now 
attracting the attention of our national, state and civic govern- 
ments. 

What Is a Road? — The origin and extension of roads. Ex- 
plain the "trail" or "foot-path" of the pioneers and how they 
were evolved, by demand of traffic, into the wagon earth-road, the 
cord,uro3^ road, the plank road, charcoal road, gravel road, rock 
road, and on to the brick and concrete roads of today. What are 
state roads, county roads, neighborhood roads? 

Value of Good Roads. — What permanently improved roads, 
of whatever class, mean to a state, a county, a rural community. 
The spiritual, moral, social, commercial and educational benefits 
of good roads to the country neighborhood, and incidentally to 
the city. How it affects the rural mail delivery. How the purpose 
of good roads construction is to leave the imprint upon the child- 
mind — the man, contractor and road-builder of tomorrow — that 
good roads are an absolute necessity and must be built, as a 
church or school house must be provided for the public good. 

What Makes a Good Road? — The proper location. Explain 
location. Why a map of a road is made and recorded. The neces- 
sity of a profile, and how a profile is made ; its necessity in intelli- 
gently estimating costs. Explain the grade percentages and how 
they are determined, and show by tables and charts the great loss 
in hauling over steep grades, and why and how steep grades 
should be reduced. 



160 GOOD EOADS 

Drainage. — The vital importance of drainage to any road — 
earth, wooden or metal surface. What drainage means — the 
proper methods of diverting or carrying olf surplus surface water 
with the least damage to a roadway. Explain sub-drainage, and 
what causes necessitate sub-drainage in certain places and under 
certain conditions. Waterways or outlets — how to estimate re- 
quired sizes of culverts or bridge openings to carry off natui-ai 
water courses or rainfalls, etc, Drain ditches, side ditches, berm 
ditches. The importance of drainage to properly "crowned" 
road-beds. 

Cross-Section. — Explain the cross-section of a roadway. Its 
relation to the profile of the length of the road. Explain the 
various terms used in referring to the cross-section of a roadway, 
such as crown, berm, side ditches, berm ditches. How the widths 
of road-beds are determined, etc., and why some states have laws 
governing the widths of road-beds for permanent improved roads. 

Road Construction and Maintenance. — Explain methods of 
bidding on and letting road work by contract, etc. Why a bidder 
needs the map and profile of a road before bidding on same. How 
the cross-section helps a bidder. How let : by the whole or 
"lump," or by the cubic yard. Specifications — map, profile and 
cross-section made a part thereof by reference thereto. Explain 
cubic yard and how to calculate it. Contract and bond. Why the 
contractor should be familiar with the terms and methods used for 
calculating earth, rock or other road work. Study the method of 
staking out road work; how lengths of roads are measured by 
"stations," and why. Plus-stations, and why. The marking of 
center and side stakes. Draw diagrams of regular and irregular 
"cuts" and "fills." Explain why and when "grade pegs" are 
driven. Explain various methods of road construction and study 
the secret of the successful contractor, and what causes "fail- 
ures." Necessity of rolling roadway, etc. 

What is the meaning of road maintenance. The importance 
of prompt repairs, and why. What is meant by mechanical struc- 
tures and the maintenance of same? The importance of opening 
drain ditches and other waterways. Mud holes and how treated. 
Necessity of keeping the crowned road-bed in shape. Explain the 
terms "tight roof" and "dry cellar" in road talk. The sub-grade 
and its importance. The "split-log" drag and its early origin and 
use ; its universal use today ; its solution of the earth-road prob- 
lem. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of wide and nar- 
row tires, and high and low wheels, on wagons. 



GOOD ROADS 161 

Improved Roads. — Explain the meaning of the term "metal 
surface," as used by road-builders. Tell of the several earth- 
roads — the wooden age in road-building — the corduroy, the char- 
coal, plank road, pike road or "turnpike" road. Describe the 
"turnstile." Tell of the old toll system, and for what the toll 
was used. Stone tramways, gravel roads, shale roads, shell roads, 
cobblestone roads, the macadam road, concrete roads. What is 
concrete, and how made ? Proportions of cement, sand and rock, 
and why? Bituminous concrete; asphalt; how applied, etc. 
Binders and fillers in rock and brick roads, and what they affect. 
Oil as a preservative and dust-arrester in roads and streets. 

Explain the connection between the conveniences of modern 
civilized life and good roads ; also the relation between improved 
types of rural schools and good roads. Describe the connection 
between road building and the victories of both peace and war. 
Ask your classes to trace the old Roman military roads in Europe 
that are being used by the armies of today. Ask the children 
in what way good automobile roads in America contribute to the 
winning of the war. 

Describe the difference between a good road for wagons and 
automobiles and a properly laid railroad bed. Try to arouse en- 
thusiasm on the subject of good roads as a patriotic duty. 



RURAL SCHOOL 
ARCHITECTURE 



Plans and Suggestions for One- 
and Two-Room Scnool Houses 
"witn and -witnout AssemDiy Hails 



Department of Education 
STATE OF COLORADO 



MARY C. C. BRADFORD 

State Superintendent of Public Instruction 

President State Standardization 'Board 

Denver, Colorado 



FOREWORD 

"The child who comes to school from a well appointed home 
has the right to enter a school as good, at least, as the home from 
which he came ; and .the child who comes from a neglected home has 
the right to enter the best school the community and State can pro- 
duce, and such a school as will beget in him a conscious sense of 
the dignity of citizenship." — Horace M. Bebok. 



PREFACE 

This book is published in the interest of better school buildings 
in the rural districts of Colorado. The practice of school architec- 
ture has been well established and standardized by experience ; and 
the plans shown in this book have been selected to illustrate the ap- 
plication of the more important standards of school planning to the 
small rural school. 

The auditoriums or assembly rooms in some of these plans are 
not intended for the pupils of the school alone, but also for public 
meeting of the people of the district. This feature is particularly 
desirable in districts where no suitable meeting place exists. 

The law ' ' Eegulating the Practice of Architecture in the State 
of Colorado" requires, among other things, that plans for all school 
houses and assembly halls shall be made by an architect who holds a 
license to practice in the State of Colorado. In selecting an archi- 
tect, be sure that he is well recommended by the districts for whom 
he has built school houses, and see that the school he plans for you 
meets the requirements of modern standards of school architecture 
(see page 168). No professional man carries greater responsibility 
to the public in matters of health and safety, and none nearly so 
great in terms of money, as does the architect ; and the good archi- 
tect, like the good lawyer, is able to earn his fee for the client. The 
standard fee for full architectural service on general work through- 
out the United States is six per cent of the cost of the building. 



^ <2 <!. tdnxjAU. 

State Superintendent of PuMic Instruction. 



166 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



167 







J 68 SCUOOL ARCniTECTUBE 



NOTICE 

For the benefit of those districts unable to secure the services 
of a trained expert, and who are compelled by circumstances to 
rely chiefly upon their own efforts in building, arrangements have 
been made with 

Messrs. Mountjoy, French & Frewen 
Architects — Denver, Colo. 

to supply working drawings of one- and two-room school houses at 
a small cost to the district. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



169 



1 

CLA// KOOM 




K 


7 


H£4TER.-%_s 



Co/>)T Room 



riyOO^ "PLAN 



In ^ome parts of Colorado adobe is easily obtainable and un- 
skilled labor is plentiful. Where these conditions exist, a building 
can be built of adobe for less money than of any other suitable 
material. 

In districts where the rainfall is not too heavy, a school build- 
ing properly designed and constructed in adobe should be thor- 
oughly satisfactory, and sufficiently long lived for all school pur- 
poses. 

The above plan and exterioi" views on the opposite page are 
of a one-room school designed for adobe construction. This design 
is also suitable for concrete construction, and the same plan with 
changes in the exterior can be made to fit any material. 

Where finances will permit the addition of an entrance ves- 
tibule, a separate room for the heater and coal, and an additional 
door from class room to coat room are recommended. 



170 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 

STANDARDS 

A few of the more important standards of successful school 
planning are given below. For more complete information, see the 
"Official Code of the Boston School House Commission," "Ameri- 
can Schoolhouses " by Dresslar, published in Bulletin (1910) No. 5 
by the United States Bureau of Education, Department of the In- 
terior ; and other schoolhouse bulletins published by this Bureau. 

Orientation : Whenever possible, place the building so that 
the class rooms will receive light from the East. West light is sec- 
ond choice, and North light third choice. Avoid South light in 
class rooms. 

Class Rooms: A class room 23 feet wide by 29 or 30 feet 
long, with a 12-foot ceiling, will accommodate thirty-five pupils, 
and makes a very satisfactory unit. In rural districts, however, 
it is not always possible to limit the classes to thirty-five pupils. 
A room 24 feet wide by 32 feet long, with a 12yo-foot ceiling, will 
accommodate from forty to forty-five pupils, and no teacher should 
ever be asked to teach a larger number. 

Windows : Place windows on the long side of the class room 
so that the light will come from the left-hand side of the pupils. 
The area of window glass shall not be less than one-fifth the floor 
area of the class room. Place the top of the windows near the ceil- 
ing and the sill from 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet above the floor. 

Wardrobes : Wardrobes should adjoin class rooms, and be 4 
feet 6 inches to 5 feet wide; provided with doorways connecting 
with the class room and not the corridor. The approved standard 
type of Chicago Wardrobe can sometimes be used to advantage. 

Floors: Class room floors should be air-tight. Much sick- 
ness, discomfort, and poor work in school are caused by defective 
floors. 

Blackboards : The height of the blackboards from the floors 
should be as follows : 

Primary Grades, 20 to 25 inches. 
Intermediate Grades, 22 to 26 inches. 
Grammar Grades, 26 to 32 inches. 

Closets and Cases: Provide, where possible, a small closet, 
for the teacher's coat and hat, opening from the class room; and 
a bookcase in a convenient position. A closet opening from the 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 171 

class room and of sufficient size to accommodate a Victrola or Phon- 
ograph is often desirable. 

Stair Cases: Not over 5 feet wide. Steps about 6^ inches 
or 7 inches by 10^^ inches. 

Exits and Fire Escapes: See Colorado State Law Regulat- 
ing Exits and Fire Escapes. 

HEAT AND VENTILATION 

Heat: The most satisfactory form of heating within the 
reach of the small school is a low-pressure gravity steam plant with 
direct-indirect radiation placed under the windows. Where the 
steam plant is too expensive, a good large furnace located in the 
basem.ent or in a small room adjoining the class rooms is preferable 
to the jacket stove set in the class room, and is only slightly 
more expensive. 

Ventilation : Systems of forced ventilation are generally too 
expensive for the small school, the next best system is what is 
known as "ventilation by gravity." While this system does not 
always operate satisfactorily under all conditions of weather, it is 
decidedly better than no system at all^, and adds but little to the 
cost of the building. 

"It is in no sense an exaggeration to assert that 75% 
of the furnaces for heating schools I have examined, are 
too small for either safety, economy, or health." — Bulle- 
tin (1910) No. 5, U. S. Bureau of Education. 

SANITARIES 

The Colorado State Board of Health, under the State Plumb- 
ing Code (adopted June, 1917), control plumbing, sewerage sys- 
tems, sanitary equipment, and water supply with regard to school 
houses. 

The State of Michigan and several other States have used the 
indoor chemical closet in districts where no sewerage system exists. 
These closets have been in use for a number of years and are re- 
ported as thoroughly satisfactory. 

'(Reference : Department of Public Instruction, Lansing, 
Michigan.) 

The Colorado State Board of Health, however, advises against 
chemical closets, and they can not be used without special permit 
from the Plumbing Division of the State Board of Health. 



172 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




ri^TfLODRfiAM 




^JEMEMT ?LAN 



SCHOOL AECHITECTURE 



173 




ONE, l^CDM ^CHCDL, "A" 

MOUNTJOY nSENCH &.7T^EWE;n 
AI2CHITE,CT3 DENVEJ3. GOLPRADO 



The plan shown above is a good example of a one-room school 
with furnace and coal outside of class room, yet very accessible. 
The school plan on the opposite page is similar to the one above, 
except that the furnace is in the basement, which has an assembly 
hall and a kitchen where refreshments may be prepared for com- 
munity gatherings. The assembly room can be used without open- 
ing the class room. 



174 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




^CHODI, BUIlDlNq *c* 

QE-OUND FLOOP PL,AN 
MOUNTJOV fKENCH S^TRE-^N AECHITECK 
DENVER dOL,OreADO 




5CHOOJ^bUlLDlNq'C" 

bA^£,ME;NT rUOOI^ PL,AN 



MOUNTJOY FkE^CH £, FEE.^X^N 
AKCH1TE;CT5 t)E.MVE,R.C01,0^AD0 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



175 




School Building "B" is an interesting example of two class 
rooms, a library and assembly room, with a possibility of a manual 
training room, and a domestic science room in the basement. This 
design gives a very pleasing exterior, and an assembly room which 
is very satisfactory for public use. 



176 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



177 





" •• '• J-i •Jiatl '*«? ^^s'i 






1-" 







JL 



178 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



Playground Equipment for Rural Schools 




cfioss seer/ ON 

OF TEETER BOARD 

SH0WIN6 
U-BOLT FASTENING 




SIDE VIEIV~SIVWG SEAT 



NOTE 

The above equipment 
was constructed by 
teacher and pupils at 
the Columbine School, 
Dist. No. 4, Delta Co., 
at the cost of $26.39 for 
all materials, including 
paint. It has proved to 
be strong, safe and very- 
enjoyable to the chil- 
dren. It is very attrac- 
tive and will last sev- 
eral years. 



To School Boards and Teachers. 

Dear Co-workers: I am submitting the accompanying guide toward 
the selection of playground apparatus of a standard type. These pieces 
of equipment are inexpensive and easy to make, yet answer the require- 
ments of healthful recreation and play-exercise. They will meet the de- 
mands of the score card, entitling a school to three points toward stand- 
ardization. 

Trusting that these plans may be helpful to the school children— the 
chief asset of the State of Colorado, whose welfare- should be your and 
my supreme object, I am 

Fraternally, 

State Superintendent of Public Instruction. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 179 

THE JUNIOR RED CROSS AS A PERMANENT EDUCATIVE 

AGENCY 

This volume of the War-Modified Course of Study for the. 
schools of Colorado, dealing with those subjects * that specifically 
interpret the world of nature and man, would be incomplete with- 
out a re-statement of the vital function to be performed by the 
schools for the world, through the medium of the Junior Red Cross. 

Though the Great War to End Wars has come to a victorious 
conclusion, there is more need than ever for the second line of 
defense of the Nation's ideals and hopes — the school children — to 
continue to co-operate in supplying the needs of the world through 
the Junior membership. The war is over, but the needs created by 
it have not yet been met. Years of reconstructive work lie before 
this and every other nation. For long years to come, the united, 
loving service of all American school children will be necessary if 
the schools are to be vitally linked to life and made to serve as 
agents in the rebuilding of civilization. 

The Junior Red Cross presents so many phases of activity and 
educative self-expression, that it makes its appeal to every child. 
Home and foreign service work, the science and art of food conser- 
vation and of the production of garments needed for the countries 
that have suffered most during this devastating war, all offer 
avenues of self-expressive work and loving service of which the 
children of America will surely avail themselves. 

Teachers have already found that Civics and Patriotism may 
be wonderfully well taught by means of the Junior Red Cross 
membership. This agency should continue to be so utilized, even 
after most of the evil effects of the war have been repaired. The 
Red Cross has always performed a great work in times of national 
disaster through famine, flood, fire, plague or any other great dis- 
location of the normal activity of nature or society. The Junior 
Red Cross can be made a part of this perpetual humanizing^ self- 
sacrificing service. 

I urge upon the teachers of 'Colorado the further organization 
of the Junior membership and the intensification of the work al- 
ready begun, and I am certain that Colorado will greatly add to 
its already proud record in the forwarding of this — one of the 
greatest movements of the world. 



State Superintendent of Public Instruction. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



019 302 737 4 




